Research Ethics and Nature of Practitioner Research - Literature review Example

?Research ethics and Nature of Practitioner Research Introduction Practitioner research is whereby practitioners are engaged inresearches and reflection in their areas of practices. There are various terms that have been employed in description of such a form of research, and which can be used as the replacement. This includes action research but practitioner research remains one of the popular terms that are applied in the description of the practice. Conventionally, practitioner research found a lot of application in education. Indeed, these are the areas that have traditionally relied on the practitioner research. Even so, it has only been until recent that, in education, teachers began benefitting from the practice. Practitioner research has been employed as a means of bridging the gap between practices and theory. There have been the urges for teachers to cultivate action research as a way of improving education, as well as reconstructing knowledge (Berker 103). Other areas of practice have also not been left behind, all targeting to add to existing information, as well as bridging the gap between theory and practice. Various debates pertaining to practitioner research have emerged. As such, there have been deliberations pertaining to the real nature of practitioner research, as well as its values, qualities and the underlying activities. This paper explores the nature of practitioner research. Besides, ethical codes of conduct have been one of the areas that can not be overlooked as far as the efficacy of practitioner research is concerned. Putting this into consideration, this paper explores various issues pertaining to ethics, in relation to practitioner research. Ethics and practitioner Research Ethics are about actions people or members of certain community should undertake. There is a close relationship between ethics and morality. Thus, a practitioner who behaves in a manner that is moral can be said to uphold ethics For instance, journalists who tell the truth would be said to be ethical. In the same way, soldiers ought to be courageous and a research practitioner should stick to ethics of research (Pewro 56). Ethics are also a set of desirable feature that an organization needs its members to uphold. Despite the fact that fact that ethics have often been associated with mannerism or etiquette, the two terms are not the same. In this regard, codes of ethics should not incline on areas such as a mode of dressing, as well as politeness of the research practitioners. Additionally, there is no association between aesthetics and ethics. Parallels can only be drawn between morality and ethics. Thus, ethical codes of conduct are based on principles of morality. Nevertheless, it also encompasses what is desirable. For instance, a mechanical engineer may insist on certain wheels because he is concerned about upholding safety. Research practitioners may insist on certain approaches because of reliability. Clearly, such may be beyond the stipulations of moral principles, as well as the law (Ayres and Braithwaite 23). Sanctions should only be applied in relation to minimum standards (morality), rather than the expected ideals (ethics). The perception that ethical codes of conduct are rules that delineate actions that are supposed to be carried out is not comprehensive. More often than not, ethics allude to virtues, such as those pertaining to integrity, and condemn vices such as those associated with dishonesty. In addition, codes of conduct ought to touch on attitudes such as empathy and sympathy (Bless 34). In all these cases, ethos and the culture of organization, society or community are what influence the ethical code of conduct. Culture can be viewed as attitudes of people towards certain subjects, people or actions. The subject of ethic is often inclined on culture; thus, any approach pertaining to ethics and ethical code of conduct should put into consideration various cultural aspects. In this regard, the ethical codes of conduct that the practitioner research ought to uphold should be in line with the ideals and values that are acceptable by the community (Balyles, 878) The objectives, as well as desirable ideals, are all supposed to be upheld; with regard to if they are pivotal or destructive to the processes of striving for success. In contrast, principles are supposed to guide actions. Principles, therefore, could be viewed as the basis that prescribes action regularities. Codes of ethics can be applied as a way of upholding behaviors that are desirable. However, they should not be limited at behaviors and actions. They should be extended to address habits and attitudes, as well as be employed as a way of motivating behavior. There is a close relationship between the stipulations of law and the stipulations of the morality. However, the two should not be mistaken. Not all stipulations that are offered by the law reinforce morality. Additionally, not all stipulation about what morality is conforms to the requirements of the law. Such confusions are common among those legal practitioners and enforcers (Punch, 34). Codes of ethics are an appropriate avenue for people to exercise or frustrate commitments to the common law. In this regard, ethical codes of conduct are moral standards that a community, an organization or individuals incline. These create allowance for co-existence of autonomy among individuals, a feature that is particularly essential for a society that is free. Ethical codes should not incline to addressing issues that are relevant, as well as those that exist outside the areas of duty and occupations. For instance, ethical codes of conduct should not address sexual practices. Decision making processes that are perceived as ethical or moral should be based on reasoned validation. For instance, it is ethical that the agreements to pay the fees. Alternatively, teachers should not have a sexual relationship with their students because the relationship undermines the successes of academic performance (Morton, 1999). More often than not, codes of ethical conduct are often supplemented by the moral reasoning models. This is appropriate because it offers reinforcement to the code application. Most occupation requires people to accept obligations pertaining to the professionalism. Nevertheless, some of the professional obligations are moral obligations. These are only complementary to the moral obligations possessed before joining the occupation. The subject pertaining to members in possession of discretionary powers, such as choice of police officers to arrest the offender should be tackled in the code of ethics, and the choice for the practitioner researches to overlook certain issues that are all pertinent to cases at hand (Koch and Kralik 72).There is large extent of concurrence of what professional occupations should entail, as opposed to any form of occupation. There are five features that characterize these features. First, the obligations and duties of all the professionals is aimed at delivering what is desirable. Secondly, members affiliated to the group’s exercises creativity and expertise as a way of delivering what is desirable. Thirdly, each member in the group is subject to certain autonomy that enables them to exercise their autonomy. Fourthly, all the members function as a group that with self-conscience. Lastly, members are entitled to certain constitutional status that is recognized and protected by the legal authorities. Ethical codes of conduct should not be should give reflection of priority to what is morally acceptable, as well as the interest of the public. When competition ensues between members of occupation, competition should be such that it ensures there is fairness, as well as the rights of consumers ,are put into consideration. Code of ethical conduct is characterized by two elements; the content of the rules and principles that are required by occupation, and organization or individual commitment to conform the set of stipulated principles and rules. Traditionally, codes of ethics were perceived as essential for professional groups. However, codes of conduct are also essential for other forms of occupations. Considering that the world is dynamic, attitudes and ethics would tend to change continuously. Ethical problems and challenges would always set in and would require that ethical codes of conduct be consistently revised to keep abreast. There is the dire need to incorporate ethical codes of conduct in the formal, as well as in the informal education curricular. The processes of drafting ethical codes of conduct should not only involve police makers such as managers, but also those other groups affiliated to the organization or those that would interact with the systems’ code of conduct. Such a consultative approach ensures that the interests of the participants are addressed, so that the cods of conduct are not rejected after the drafts are finalized. Ethical codes of conduct should outline actions and consequences. This includes attaching sanctions to cases that would be met with noncompliance. This implies that ethical codes of conduct are not limited to integration of cultural and educative functions, but also the regulatory functions (Fontana 45). More often than not, the ethical codes of conduct should be complemented by the codes of practice. Whereas the ethical code of conduct is as representation of ideals and ideas that organization or individuals of a group should uphold, codes of practice outline how the actions are supposed to be carried out. What has been presented as subject of dispute pertains to the generic content pertaining to the ethical codes of conduct. Nevertheless, codes of ethics should not only give a detailed description of minimum standards, but also the ideals pertaining to occupations. In this regard, the descriptions that delineate the ethical code of conduct should include principles that guide actions, a swell as those virtues and attitudes that are considered desirable. For instance, whereas the members of the fire brigade steam are supposed to act in a courageous manner, they should do so in a manner that does not harm their lives, as well as the live other people (Lofman and Pietila 34). Ethical codes of conduct should be in such a way that they do not compromise the minimum standards, which can also be referred to as the basic principles. For instance, ethical code of engineering organization should not be in a way that it compromises the priorities that are meant to uphold safety. Ethical codes of conduct should be based on the occupation requirement, and be inline with the interests of people to participate in upholding them. They should contain statements that express the commitment to principles that address the autonomy of participating individuals. Additionally, the codes should be nondiscriminatory to the participants. They should instill integrity; the codes of ethics should be in a manner such member of organization do not tell lies or engage in deals that are corrupt, among other undesirable practices. The ethical codes of conduct should be set out the goals of the organization occupation. In doing so, it should identify most essential principles, ideals and human rights. Besides, ethical of ethical conduct should contain a statement that addresses various issues. First, they should contain statements that are aimed at committing professions to respect the rights of the participants, as well as those that they interact. Secondly, they should entail statements that create allowance for disciplinary processes and complaints that are in line with principles pertaining to independence, fairness and reason. Thirdly, codes of ethical conduct should contain statements that uphold situational ethics, that is, those that are dependent upon the nature of the profession. Fourth, they should contain statements that touch on the need for training and education required for the occupation. Fifthly, codes of ethical conduct should contain statements that are such that lients pay fees because they make Ethical codes of conduct are required to address the problematic issues pertaining to an ethical dilemma. These should be extended to address areas of confusions such as confusion of roles. The ethical codes of conduct should address areas such as those that arise from conflicting interests. It is pertinent that the codes of ethics should not address certain areas. These areas include Aesthetics, private morality, aesthetics and specialized knowledge and technical skills. This is because they do not constitute ethics (Koch and kerrick 23). Research ethics The subject of research ethics has become popular following the desire to protect human rights and dignity in projects of research. The first attempt of draft research ethics is argued to have been triggered by the Doctor Trials. The Doctor Trial was atria of Nazi physicians, who in the event of carrying out research project in the concentration camps, went about torturing the Jews in their practices. As a way of protecting physicians from violating the rights of other people, research ethics were formulated. In the current world, the subject of research ethics has gained popularity in every area of practitioner research, regardless of the area of research. Nevertheless, this does not only put human rights into consideration, but also the animal rights and other pertinent areas. Nevertheless, there are some basic principles that characterize most of practitioner research ethics and which were constituents of the Nuremberg’s guidelines. These are stated as follows. The participants in the research should voluntarily accept to participate in the research project. The goals of the research should be targeted at improving the welfare of the society. Any research that is to be carried out should be a basis of a theory, that is sound and should be tested on animals prior to the subjection on human beings. All researches should be carried out in a manner that minimizes physical, as well as mental suffering. No researches should be taken if their potential results are injuries and death. The level of potential risks of the research should not overshadow the intended outcomes. There is the need to offer adequate protection, as well as favorable environment for the participants of practitioner researches. Practitioner researches should only be carried out by qualified professionals Practitioner researchers should terminate their researches as soon as it is discerned that the research practice could be accompanied by undesirable results. There are other research guidelines that were developed to address certain critical areas of practitioner research. Helsinki Declaration, one of the ethical research guidelines, addressed various critical areas such as: The need to employ investigators that were independent to carry out reviews of the research projects. Employment of qualified personnel in the supervision of the research projects. The need fro preservation of accurate results Dealing with mentally ill and children Stipulations about acquiring consent from the participants Evaluation and the use of experimental results from the participants Description of environments that are suitable for safe practitioner researches Other guidelines, such as those constituting the Belmont Report incorporated and comprehensively covered areas such as Research ethical Principles when dealing with human beings The boundaries existing between practice and practitioner research Concepts pertaining to respect of people’s rights, justice and beneficence Such guidelines have now been widely incorporated into the government regulations and laws. Government laws have focused on human rights and animal rights. Currently, most developments pertaining to practitioner research ethics have focused on education of the practitioner researchers. Besides, practitioner research is subject to situational ethics that touch on areas such as plagiarism, authorship, data management and conflict of interest. All these are described depending on the nature and area of practitioner research. The notion of Insider researcher Insider research is characterized by the phenomenon whereby the practitioner researchers have direct involvement or connection with setting of research. This differs from the traditional outsider notion that was characterized by researchers studying external subjects. There are various approaches of classifying insider research. For instance, professional can decide to conduct a research in their area of professionalism, in what could be termed as practitioner research. Researchers could be belonging to a community in which the research is being conducted. New concepts such as collaborative research have emerged. Collaborative research is whereby the researchers and the people being researched take an active part in the research. Such an approach has been considered pivotal because it is one way of exemplifying existent boundaries between researchers and the researched subjects, which have been the bone of contention. In such situations, the undergo obliteration when the researchers are made the study subject. Moreover, insider researches could also encompass situations that the researchers are partisans, extending to emotional, sexual and political, among other areas of attachments. Examples of the notion of insider researches include feminist carrying out research among the feminist population, or the transgender populations. Considering that insider researchers are involved in the research projects, the subject of validity becomes particularly problematic. Insider researchers, based on the positivism approach, are not as objective as outsider researchers, and distortions of results may not be uncommon. In this regard, the validity of practitioner research is always threatened based on the insider researchers is often threatened. Neo-positivists, as well as anti-positivists, have often added that, based on the fact insider research does not have complete objectivity, the validity of insider researchers are particularly threatened by the biases that the researcher hold (Hewitt 23). In this regard, more often than not, the notion of insider research has been subject of various questions, including: a. Does the relationship between researchers and the researched subject result in anomalous behaviors b. Does the tacit knowledge that researchers possess lead them into making false interpretations, as well as flawed assumptions c. Would the partisan position, loyalties, politics, and hidden agenda result in research data misinterpretations. Besides, it is widely cited that insider research has various advantages. First, it is arguable that insider researchers are versed with information pertaining to the area of research, and which is privy to the outsider researchers. Secondly, considering that researchers are one of their own, the respondents are likely to open up and give all information that is pertinent to the research. In this regard, based on the perspectives of the anti-positivists, insider researches are placed appropriately to increase the validity of research. This is achieved effectively in terms of fidelity, authenticity, honesty, added richness and acquired information. Those in support of insider research have asserted that all the arguments leveled against insider researches are applicable for all types of researches. For instance, it is never possible to guarantee the openness and reliability of all the researched subjects, and that complete objectivity is impossible. The subject off interest is to tackle the entire research problem, a process that begins with address research biases, honesty and objectivity. It is arguable that an honesty and transparency is a precondition for researchers to construct perspectives that are equally valid. Clearly, insider research is a highly contested area Practitioner research and improvement Whereas the main focus of practitioner research is knowledge construction, equipping the society and those in practice with new information, the purpose of practitioner research is also to ensure that additional information is utilized. Indeed, the applicability of new information in the practice sis all dependent upon practitioner research. However, this does not imply that all that research creates is all applicable to practice. Most theories pertaining to action and practitioner research have often focused on its moral dimensions. This way, practitioner research has been presented as an approach that is oriented towards improvement of social justice and democracy. Regardless of practice, embracing such an approach implies that research practitioners cannot question or inquire into practitioner research without tackling the values underpinned to thinking. Questions have been raised on the methodologies to adopt in order to ensure that a practitioner and ethical research are morally and ethically valid. To some extent, this has been described as an issue to philosophy. Research practitioners are encouraged to be aware of philosophical assumptions that are always generate self-conscious about them. Hereunder, situation where values, assumptions and beliefs cannot be defined may be dismissed as lacking philosophical validity. Inhabiting multiple identities in Practitioner Research It is rare to live without the multiple identities as there is always the desire for survival (Punch, 34). Despite the fact that there are various options, majority of people opt to live with the multiple identities Perfect balancing is required when one is opening up in order to avoid the discrimination that might arise. However, this is not common. Various researches have pointed out that those who are not free to share their feelings, especially when undergoing suffering worsen it (Spenser 34). There are those who find it more easily to share certain information and keep some information which they consider too sensitive to be shared. Nevertheless, this does not give the solution. Sociologist such as Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead (2), emphasize importance of other people in the society that make them understand and establish the sense of identity. Goff man (45) emphasizes that different persons play various social roles like an actress and the actors on the stage, feeling committed and belonging to a particular group in the public. Symbolic and interactions perspective has taken the role in the approach of sociology in the identity approach. One must understand and determine the role of social identity in practitioner research, and even go further to negotiate. The reaction of others affects appreciably determination and negotiation of the individual associating. For instance, when a person gets married, the role changes as he assumes the new role as a spouse (Punch 45). This scenario applies for practitioner research. When one understand how he is similar and different from the rest, it becomes useful part, as far as practitioner research is concerned. Therefore, other people can be useful in helping to define sense development of practitioner research. Erickson’s theory of identity shows that adolescence is the period in an individual when one increases the power and responsibility. There are a number of ways in which adolescence keeps on struggling for identity (Punch 23). For instance, one can show foreclosure identity whereby the young individual decides to adopt values and roles that are prescribed by their parents in steady of going through the process and coming up with their own behaviors and beliefs. Besides, the other group may try to delay committing the identities so that they can try out various alternatives identities, such people are often caught in the role struggle and confusion. The last one is the identity crisis where one fails to face the challenges as the realty; they show little or no effort about various situations (Hodkinson 23). Psychological practitioner research has revealed that people are involved various behaviors in order of constructing, testing and confirming their identities. Members of the same group are seen as in the group and non members are out group. Research further reveals that such in the group and out group bring the discrimination, as those who belong to a particular group feel that they can make significant social group. Political scientists often focus on how the group one belongs to influence mobilization and impact in society. Group also may increase the sense of pride to an individual as one feels the sense of processing the resource of the group he belongs. Some of identical groups that people attach themselves to and influence their behavior include: religion, race, ethnicity and gender. Such issues play a crucial role in practitioner research. Integration of professional, academics and reflective knowledge in practitioner Research The importance of integrating professional, academic, "as well as reflective knowledge" is particularly documented in the literature. Indeed, professional, academic and reflective knowledge is widely regarded essential to practitioner research. It has been widely cited that practitioner research is part and parcel of the changes that acknowledge the need for practitioners to think in a professional way, integrating both the theories and practices from such an outset. Activities to promote integration of this information have been well heeded and embraced in academics, as well as in real practice. Currently, formal requirements have been formulated for practitioners to offer evidence of academic, reflective and professional knowledge for licensing, as well as processes pertaining to revalidation. Such a move is aimed at reflecting several converging lines pertaining to lines underlying assumptions, beliefs and reasoning. There can be no appropriate way of growing professionally as learning from experience since it is a way of developing and maintaining various forms of competence in practice. Reflection models include reflecting on the experiences in a manner that is critical (Ncoln, 45) As the professional identity is nurtured, there are always certain personal aspects that touch on the attitude, beliefs and perceptions of individuals and which have a bearing on the integration of these critical areas. All these are informed by the fact that establishing of the bases of knowledge is calls upon active approaches in learning, which result in the reconstruction of new information. When all these are tied together, these results in professionals that are self-conscious, and who are capable of engaging in self-regulation and self-monitoring, as far as practitioner research is concerned. Education programs have recognized the need for a curriculum that promotes practitioner research. Such type of curriculum introduces the students into acting and thinking in the way of professionals. This is an appropriate approach compared to the traditional way of having students learn theory first before embarking of practice. In the response of such approaches, there are various curricula that have been designed, across various fields of professionalism. Indeed, activities aimed at promoting practitioner research have been integrated in various academic courses. However, the efficacy of such intervention can only be ascribed based on theories. Power Relationship and Practitioner research Power is widely understood as the ability for an individual or group to affect the ends of an institution or organization through the decision making processes. This can also be extended in influencing other people other parties, especially when it occurs in a legitimate way or sanctioned in the bases of the organizations. Despite the fact that power is different from influence, most descriptions have drawn parallels between power and influence. This because power and influence serve the same function, which is getting some activities, carried out through mobilization of attitude, beliefs, opinions, perceptions, behaviors, as well as statements. The aspect has played a crucial role in influencing practitioner research. The influence of power in practitioner research can be classified into two; it can motivate or discourage practitioner research. Motivation could be perceived to encompass funding or offering incentives for practitioner research. Closely touching on the subject of power and practitioner research is the when there is the theme of conflict off interest (PietilIia et al, 200). Weaknesses of Most Practitioner Researches According to Hewitt (45), there are various areas that most practitioner researches have failed. Indeed, this is evident in following ways. Practitioner research has often treated nature of evidence as straightforwardly beyond reproach. Inter-professional dialogue is often limited. It is limited at ways in which to ways in which inquiry styles functions as practice models. Practitioner researches have often adopted a deductive stand about the relationship of theory and practice. Responsibilities of Practitioner Researchers The complexities linked to the use of action research and participatory action research does not detract from their escalating appeal (Prosser et al 202). These methodologies highlight the need for any practitioner researcher to address the ethical issues that are perceived as complex. The dilemmas that come out during action research and participatory action study calls upon flexible intervention of action research (Simpson, 201). An essential feature for accommodating changing situations in the field increases the likelihood of ethical dilemma. There have been limited responses to various dilemma underlying practitioner research (Koch 108).Articulation of these dilemmas is related to cultural issues commonly raised questions. These contribute significantly on how one can deal with them. Action research that involve human, is the best as compared to all other researches. This calls upon researchers to address the needs for practitioner research (Koch, 108). Situational ethics result from the fact that, human being is dependent to each other, and they are aware of each other thus; demand their attention. According to Fontana and Frey (372), situational ethics is where the researchers are involved in a certain situation that prompts them to respond in a certain special way (Punch, 84). On the other hand, researchers must resolve ethical dilemmas without wasting a lot of time consulting other people. Personal and social implications become far-reaching, especially when a group under study and the researcher come together. Wadsworth (105) argues that, when setting up the rules in the research, issue of ethics should not be overlooked. There are three common ethical concerns that one in the field of study should do; avoid causing harm to the subject, and there should be confidentiality. Wads worth (106) says the ethics committee who come up with what constitutes harm and consent raise the issues of power in action study and participatory action research in making a decision. The exposure element in the action research can have consequences for persons working within an organization. Denzin (41) suggest that qualitative researchers should be involved as they come in contact with the individuals on making decisions on the regard to ethical concerns as it is the part life in the field. Qualitative researchers must be keen on ethical issues throughout their study and should allow the possibilities of solving ethical problems. The best research should not cause any negative effect to the subjects. These qualitative researchers should always strive to maintain the proper manners and code of ethics. W hen the subject take culture for granted, they may be unable of tackling ethical dilemmas. When going to field to carry out research one should have some knowledge about the subject in order of avoiding conflict (Simpson, 656). Conclusion Practitioner research is whereby practitioners are engaged in researches and reflection in their areas of practices. The popularity of practitioner research is currently felt in all professions. Ethics are about actions people or members of certain community should undertake. There is a close relationship between ethics and morality. Thus, a practitioner who behaves in a manner that is moral can be said to uphold ethics. Codes of ethics are an appropriate avenue for people to exercise or frustrate commitments to the common law. In this regard, ethical codes of conduct are moral standards that a community, an organization or individuals incline. These create allowance for co-existence of autonomy among individuals, a feature that is particularly essential for a society that is free. Ethical codes should not incline to addressing issues that are relevant, as well as those that exist outside the areas of duty and occupations. These are pivotal to practitioner researchers. Other dominant themes in practitioner research include situational ethics, integration of academics in practitioner research, reflection, inhabiting multiple identities and notions of insider researchers, among others. These are areas that characterize practitioner researches. Work cited Ayres, Ian and Braithwaite, John. Responsive Regulations. Oxford University Press. 1992 Print. Balyles, Michael. “Professional Power and Self Regulation”. Professional and Ethics Journal. 5;2(1986): 34-56. Print. Berker, Stephen. “Practitioner Ethics”. Ethics. 1(1992):23-34 print Bless, Smith. Basics of Social Research Methods. African Perspectives. Kenwyn: Juta. 1995. Print. Denzin, Li Erickson, Erick. Youth and Identity. Web. 28th May, 2011.< http://www.youthmonthly.com/media/idintity-Monthly/July-2011/July-2011-Arts->. Fontana, Frey.” Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry”, London: Sage Publications.1994 print Hewitt, Taylor. “The Knowledge of Inders: Issues underlying insider Research”. Nursing. 16(2002):38-45. print Hodkinson, Paul. “Insider Research in Studying Cultures”. Youth Studies. 8; 3(3):2005): 34-45 Kelley Dyne. “Action Research in Action: Reflections on a Project to Introduce Clinical in Hospital Setting”. Journal of Advanced Nursing 3(2000):20-2. Print. Koch and Kralik, Derrick. . Participatory Action Research in Health Care, London: Blackwell Publishing. London 2003. Print. Lofman, and Pietila, Agrey. “Ethical Issues in Participatory Action Research” Scandinavian Journal of Caring print Sciences, 18(3): 333-340.print Morton, A. (1999). Ethics in Action Research, Systematic Practice and Action Research, 12(2): 219-222.Print Nolen,and Vander Putten, J. Action Research in Education: Addressing Gaps in Ethical Principles and Practices. New Jersey. print Ncoln, Latyioma. Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry. London: Sage Publications.1994 print Pewro, Andrew. Unmasking the Evils of Administrations. Sage 1998. Print Educational Researcher, 36(7):401-407. Print Punch, Murnis. “Politics and Ethics in Qualitative Research” Action Research 23(2007): 34-48. Print Read More