Orientalism and 19th Century Views on Space and Setting - Research Paper Example

ORIENTALISM AND 19TH CENTURY VIEWS OF SPACE AND SETTING Introduction Orientalism expresses a tendency to portray the Near and Middle East—often referred to as the Orient—in ways which appealed to the assumptions, tastes, fantasies, politics and prejudices of a Western audience. The term came into existence from the Latin word Oriens, which refers to the rising of the sun, and is thus a literal implication of “the East.” The concept was used to characterize more than one cultural group living in more than one geographical region and yet allowed for very little of these differences to be reflected back to the Western nations. During the 19th century, a period of great Western expansion, Orientalism became an academic movement. Its primary function was to study and dissect the different facets of Eastern culture, from history and linguistics to customs, traditions and ceremonies. It would seem this exploration would foster greater understanding of the complexity and diversity of the East, and to some extent it did, but the attitudes and pre-conceived beliefs of the West proved difficult to overcome. It was only as the British and French imperial expansion provided artists with more information of the Orient and to an extent permitted them an opportunity to travel and observe the beauty and cultures of the East first hand that these attitudes slowly began to change. Despite the accuracy and detailed observations of Eastern culture inherent within some of the Orientalist literature, Edward Said critiqued the movement late in the 20th century within his pioneering book Orientalism (1978). In this book, he emphasizes the inaccuracies and generalities inherent within European views of the Muslim world. The derogatory term ‘Oriental’ as suggested by the Saidean model is little more than a romanticized and misunderstood notion of the ancient Arabian history and complex culture which was fashioned through a need to establish European superiority in the East (Said, 1978, p. 12). The current research examines the Western trends that were building throughout the 19th century when the concepts of Orientalism most strongly influenced Western society. It does so by exploring the primary role of space and setting in Orientalist art which functioned to increase the level of excitement, interaction and anticipation towards the Eastern hemisphere among 19th century artists and therefore its translation to common laypeople. . The visual language of Orientalist art is often critically analyzed against the transmission of colonial fantasy on Islamic culture; however, the primary function of looking into these images is to observe the realistic and detailed imagery of the cities, landscape and architecture of the Orient during the 19th century. Many scholars and art historians derive various ideas of the function of space and setting as a means of furthering the state of general knowledge concerning countries and exotic venues of the Near and Middle East, as well as the Far East. In many cases, these images were intended to portray a realistic interpretation of the scenes depicted yet still manage to illustrate the biases and misunderstandings of a Western ideal assuming a position of superiority. The peculiar fact is that this aim is still carried into the present day in the West despite its inaccuracies. The uniformity of appeal Orientalist art holds for the outsider remains the same. As indicated in this paper’s conclusion, Orientalist art has fostered a critical platform for the academic study of Eastern-based local art and civilization as a means of identifying the errors in understanding and portrayal. This is shown in the increased numbers of individuals from the West traveling to the East to conduct anthropological research, linguistic studies, contemporary politics and archaeological studies. However, in many cases, those who have involved themselves in such activities share the same basic attitudes towards these countries as their counterparts in the 19th century and tend to seek comparative and historical literary review for the exotic setting once depicted in paintings. While a cultural critique of Orientalism in some ways opposes the discoveries and interpretations of Orientalist artists, we still owe much of our comprehension of Eastern social settings and traditional spatial functions to Western artists’ immaculate observations and documentation. Orientalism in the Arts The West, particularly Europeans, had very little information and minimal access to the cultures of the Eastern hemisphere prior to the 1800s although some trade between nations made it clear that some form of civilization existed ‘over there’. It was not until Napoleon’s arrival in Egypt in 1798 that scientists, botanists, architects, naturalists, linguists and draftsmen who accompanied the invasion had access to the foreign and exotic appeal of the East. Their observations, sketches and writings were a documentation of everything they saw—including ancient inscriptions and monuments (Davies, 2005). The European expansion and colonialist agenda provided academic scholars from all industries to become acquainted with the ongoing expedition to unveil what lies on the Oriental countries including Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Palestine, Syria, Turkey, Persia and India. When painters began to participate in such expeditions, they too were captivated by the beauty and exotic landscapes of the Orient. It was the academic painters who introduced the European society to the entirely enchanting and mystical places they visited through the medium of their drawings, sketches and paintings. Generally speaking, Orientalist art is largely characterized by lavish impressionism and sumptuous production. Many of the best Orientalist paintings were created during the last years of the pre-industrial Middle East (Davies, 2005). Depictions of the Near East have existed since the 16th century, but did not reach its glorified form until the 19th century and the peak of Orientalist popularity. Exceeding the preciseness of photography, Orientalist artists achieved what photographs cannot capture. Artists were able to carefully study and portray meticulous representations of Islamic architecture and art, mostly in their use of patterns and decorative arts. Additionally, what academic painters such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme, Henri Regnault, Benjamin Constant and Henriette Brown have in common is the ability to reveal the timeless quality of atmosphere, sunlight, colors, and clarity in the texture of stonework. The paintings thus produced have become a gateway or window of opportunity for artists to provide as much information about the region as possible while still satisfying the curiosity of their buyers (Germaner, 2004, pg. 148). For many years, many countries in the Middle and Far East were closed off to the outside world, forcing a great deal of conjecture based upon what was known of the Near East. The creation of the Société des Peintres Orientalistes Français in 1893 under the presidency of Léonce Bénédite quickly introduced an elite circle of connoisseurs to Orientalist art through exhibitions and subject discussions (Thornton, 1994, p. 16). The fresh and pristine imagery further intensified the form and colors emphasized in this art which were not often seen in the Western setting. Although some paintings have been criticized for their false conceptions and a hidden misunderstanding regarding the sexual behavior of the Muslim world, a great number of paintings bear academic integrity in the architectural and topographical accuracy. They have encapsulated the luminous light, mystery and charm of the East during that particular era. Views on Orientalist Art In the 18th century, prior to the rise of Orientalism in European art, many Europeans worked intensively in the land of the Ottoman Empire and thus depicted the Ottoman world with vivid realism in the interest of reportage (Warraq, 2007, pg. 320). These 18th century Orientalist painters were, in fact, in awe of the advances of the Islamic civilization in many areas and thus fashioned the color, costumes, decoration and scenes of imperial court and everyday life with great accuracy in many of their paintings and drawings. This comprehensive review and elaborate depiction of the grand empire extended to the 19th century. By this era, the Orient as a real geographical place had become more widely acknowledged by the Western public. Numerous pieces of art appeared representing a variety of spaces and settings found only in the Oriental regions. The development and staging of the cultural setting for these pieces of art created an idea of a fantasy world that allured other Western artists to identify with the Near Eastern civilization. In spite of the inaccuracies of interpretation by the Western audience, the degree of realism of public space and setting, from the architecture, interior, busy streets and quiet corners, that appear in multiple Orientalist images can be discussed by comparing them to the real places that still or once existed during that time. In the late 19th century, painters from every country in Europe and from America came to the East to encounter their own Oriental experience. The glamorous and expansive cityscapes that house the people of the Near East and Middle East became a feverish adventure—and to an extent an obsession—for the Western artist. The fascination with its building structures and wildly extravagant architectural detail has brought these studies to the next level within many fields, not just art, achieving as much of an accurate record of the now archaic environment as scholars today might wish for in other parts of the world. Arguably, the romantic style characterized by individual artists’ free interpretation of the Orient has raised many eyebrows, especially when viewing those artists who may never actually have visited the Orient to paint. It is factual that some artists based their work on their own imaginations inspired by the existing literature and previous works done by other artists. After Said’s groundbreaking critique on Orientalism, many anti-Orientalists, such as Linda Nochlin in her essay “The Imaginary Orient”, argued that these artists failed to capture the real essence of the politics existent at that time and therefore were unable to portray a precise description of the empirical land. Rather, she suggested that Orientalist art was nothing more than a sugar-coated fantasy of the West’s suppressed thoughts and longing for a make-believe terrain. Nochlin argues that Orientalism falls under the category of the picturesque, often referred to as out-of-focus, and the function of such artwork is to certify that the people encapsulated by it are irredeemably different from, more backward and culturally inferior, to those who construct and consume these products (Nochlin, 1983, p. 122, 127). Despite this antipathy towards the Orientalist enterprise, historically the function of portraits was to capture the image of Orientalist iconography, such as exotic plants, fruits and animals often linked to desert oasis habitats (Benjamin, 2003, pg. 42). The various cultural settings highlight the strangeness and ‘different’ appeal of the East which cannot be found in the West. The fascination of botanical gardens, fountains, ceramic tiles, floral motifs and extraordinary decoration is apparent in every single painting that has been produced during the 19th century. What the anti-Orientalists failed to oppose are the realistic depictions of communal places including public gathering areas or open spaces that existed in these regions up until the present day despite the vast modernization and expansion of the Western influences. This imagery provided scholars and historians with the necessary information they needed to familiarize themselves with and build a generalized picture of the empirical lands both past and present. The settings we are exposed to through various intriguing Orientalist pieces are derived from real and existing structures that we can still find today in these respected Near Eastern and Middle Eastern countries. I recognized another Gérôme, another Bauernfeind, another Edwin Lord Weeks: it lent everything a strange déjà-vu feeling of recognizing mosques and streets I had never actually seen before, but ones that were already part of my visual memory. Everything became familiar, and in many ways it made me more receptive and more open-minded, for I felt the history in everything I laid my eyes upon…Rather than constructing rigid preconceptions or fixed ideas, these paintings had bolstered my enthusiasm for everything I saw and sustained my wonder. The pictures had planted a seed and created a climate in my mind, a visual ecology that had calibrated my eye to the wonders of light, shadow, texture, color, and dust. (Davies, 2005) Notably, Orientalist art gave way to the idea that portraits become attached to places, creating a sense of nostalgia and reciting historical concepts of the unknown. Space and setting in Orientalist art Thus the hitherto mysterious lands revealed themselves in the paintings produced by 19th century Orientalist painters through space and setting if nothing else. Space in this context refers to the unlimited three-dimensional realm designed and structured to house people, material objects, ritual or daily activities, and ceremonial or customary events. Setting, on the other hand, refers to the surroundings or environment of a particular locale or period in which the actions transpire. One is man-made or man-oriented and the other is natural, providing constraints and opening vistas in which man and other creatures must exist. Often illustrated as both poetic and exotic, the space in which events and scenes take place, depending on the setting, either summarize the fabulous splendor of the East or highlight the underdeveloped areas that surface as an old and enchanting place which foreigners have yet to experience. It is that exact magnetism that fixated artists on the quest for knowledge and enlightenment to discover the Muslim culture once thought to be out of the ordinary. Focusing primarily on space, artist Jean-Léon Gérôme offers a detailed review of the smallest details of the architecture and interior settings of the Orient within his art that photographs within that era could not accurately capture. For instance, within his work, Gérôme thoroughly reveals the interaction of bold colors and textures that comprised the structures of the Orient and which were frequently lost in the black and white photographic images of the 19th century. Meanwhile, the intensity of light and shadow he depicts in his paintings further acknowledges the shape and form of each object or subject that appears against the rich background. Gérôme has a particular talent and academic observation that smoothens our understanding of the particular setting in which the painting was deliberately set. In his painting The Sultan’s Tomb, Gérôme focused on the space and setting rather than a particular subject. The painting illustrates a group of men—two bowing down and one standing all the way in the back—praying before the Sultan’s tomb. The two men bowing are dressed in loincloths while the man standing is dressed in a heavier garment or robe in the fashion of a Muslim holy man. Another man stands nearby who appears to be a guard or some sort of attendant watching over the tomb. With one hand, he clenches the heavy-seeming fabric hanging from the ceiling. He is not praying; however, he comes forth as worshiping the space and power that appears before him. What is striking about this image is Gérôme’s depiction of the grand interior. The warm palette is apparent and consistent throughout the interior and is extended to the attire that each subject wears. The flags or banners draping down from the ceiling and the large oriental carpet have a weight and depth to them, sharing the jewel-toned greens, yellows and reds of the tomb and ceramic tiles on the concrete walls. The artist holds the viewer’s attention towards the immaculate detail of the room with his smooth brushstrokes, finishing the image with a light varnish that gives it an otherworldly sheen. The play of light is quite significant in suggesting the visual hierarchy of the image and to an extent directs the viewer to the center of the image, where the most detailed observation is recorded: the Sultan’s tomb. The serene setting, high ceilings and large interior suggest the importance and sacredness of that particular space. The tomb, with its magnificent presence, appears to be superior to the living men, reinforcing the concept of another world. Lavishly decorated with gold borders and Arabic or calligraphy inscriptions, the tomb is represented as something blessed, holy and admired. Gérôme brilliantly evokes the power of the higher being blessing the nobles in the Muslim world. In another painting, Arab and his Dogs, Gérôme depicts an Arab man marvelously dressed in a heavy yellow overcoat worn over yellow silk attire as he stands before the viewer with his two dogs. The dogs, turning their backs against us as viewers, face the man at attention, listening for his command. The man appears relaxed and comfortable as he leans on the door, holding a vine and smiling to his dogs. Dogs, often referred to as loyal and guarding animals, symbolize honesty and faithfulness to the owner. The two muscular and healthy dogs most probably guard his house and the area in which they are standing is likely the entryway to his home. Like The Sultan’s Tomb, what is equally important in this image is the space in which this event takes place. The Arab man stands by the side of the street in front of the entrance to his private sanction, where outsider access is limited. The enormous mahogany door, beautifully carved with different patterns comprised of checks, botanical motifs and simple rectangular shapes, becomes a barrier that blocks our view of the interior private space. In choosing this means of illustration, Gérôme makes it clear that what is important in this picture is the exterior. The old concrete is standing tall against the wooden door and mingling with the decaying decorative ceramic tiles. Again, Gérôme points out the luxurious and striking ornamentation of the exterior at the same time that he refers to an ancient and long-standing, respected civilization. This elaborate setting and entrance to a private space suggests a wealthy man, either from a merchant family, old money or of noble heredity. Another artist, Jean-Joseph Benjamin Constant, provided the viewer with a careful observation of the beautiful landscape and setting of the Orient in paintings such as Arabian Nights. The three Oriental women, lounging on the roof of the building are dressed warmly in their heavy tan-colored robes while their dark-skinned servant lies down comfortably next to them without a robe. All of the women appear to be reserved to themselves and quietly engaged in awe, appreciating what appears before them. They seem to have no interaction or connection with each other except for the fact that they are all sitting on the same roof at the same time. The three women sit on top of a bright golden-colored Oriental rug that extends down the side of the building on which they sit, thus protecting them from direct contact with the cold concrete roof while the servant lies directly on the roof unprotected from the cold. Like Gérôme, Constant’s technique of portraying the environment and external space is remarkable. The backdrop of the sea and trees against the sunset and clear sky sprinkled with stars is quite breathtaking. The rich colors of the picturesque background slowly overpower the white structure in the foreground. Moreover, Constant illustrates the importance of the Near Eastern setting to the lifestyle of its people and provides his Western buyers with an elaborate picture of this mysterious and foreign region. Another painting by Constant that has this same atmospheric effect is Harem Women, in which the extravagant interior space of the palace takes over the image entirely. The three beautiful women, dressed in expensive silk clothing with gold embroidery, seem to blend in with the overall interior and become merely a part of the decoration. The interior architecture, marble flooring, pool and green vines growing on the interior walls are gloriously portrayed by Constant in such a way that the Western viewer would be enchanted by the Oriental craftsmanship. Again, there is the presence of a dark-skinned servant richly dressed and awaiting the desires of the women he serves at the same time that close attention is given to the intricate tracery evident on the architectural façade of the building behind him and a glimpse of open blue space is provided through the arch in the center to suggest an abundance of openness in the midst of such luxury. Another young artist, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, dedicated much of his studies of the empire land to the space and setting, depicting it as a truthful interpretation of what he saw. As an esteemed Romantic artist, he painted his best subjects and discovered his most suitable genre as he produced many of his Orientalist images. He was a constant traveler and established his own views and analysis of Orientalism based upon his trips to Turkey and Smyrna. In The Night Patrol at Smyrna, Decamps captured a moment in which the Turkish military patrols were on duty, making their rounds in the city. The dignitary rides his horse, accompanied and protected by his followers. Decamps indicates his rank and power by placing him higher than others and with his right hand up clutching on to his weapon. The group appears to be focused and coherent, all moving in one direction harmoniously. He carefully illustrates the men and also the horse running together at the exact same speed and with the same left foot forward. Nevertheless, this earth-toned painting has a consistent palette throughout from the architecture, their attire to the dust produced from running on the sandy ground. Decamps’ painting shows integrity in both architectural and topographical accuracy, capturing the old-charm of Smyrna. The play of light and shadow, for instance, highlights the beautiful arches and contours of each building present. Decamps’ detailed observation—the ancient cityscape slightly covered in dust, the mosaic tiles and concrete structures aged by weathering, the arches and pathways, and the quiet streets of Smyrna—are accomplished with careful and smooth brushstrokes, allowing the viewer to ‘step through’ the painting to get a sense of the real. Like his other range of works, The Night Patrol at Smyrna shows Decamps’ brilliant technique and ability to create realistic images of both the landscape and the people of the Near East. Moreover, what painters such as Jean-Léon Gérôme, Jean-Joseph Benjamin Constant and Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps have in common is their ability to demonstrate with great excellence the revolutionary interaction between the West and the East. In each of their paintings, the Orientalist artists successfully engaged the viewer with the seductive space that Westerners often desire to experience first hand. In other words, Orientalist art provided an escape and stimulated the West’s imagination and fascination for exotic entities. Conclusion: The enticement of the exotic The Oriental space and setting, often portrayed as hot and sunny, rich in botanical plantations and greenery, plays a vital role in creating the mood within Orientalist paintings. It becomes an attractive invitation for Westerners to visit countries included in the Near and Middle East. As described in Orientalist Aesthetics, the modern tourist left their European countries to southern climates to relieve themselves from the cold and seasonal changes. For various health reasons, the weather in Near Eastern countries becomes a common solution to avoid illnesses provoked by urban winters (Benjamin, 2003, pg. 81). Of course, the term Orientalism may not be used to describe the phenomenon and fascination of the Middle East today. However, the once disappearing topic and 19th century fascination has undoubtedly resurfaced in the 21st century. More scholars, linguists, cultural anthropologists, and historians from European countries and Northern America are frequenting these countries again to gain new insight of the old civilization and the more contemporary society. In addition to their curiosity and mission to discover the complex behavior of contemporary Muslim societies today, the shifts in attitudes of Western culture have become more open-minded towards the ancient traditions. In reality, the current studies often carry over to economy and socio-political issues rather than their tradition and customary cultural practices. However, although it did not completely lose its old charm, we are still captivated by the ‘orient’s’ modernization and changing structures and developments in its architectural realm. As more individuals are exposed to the Eastern culture, the Orientalist paintings are discussed again in contemporary texts as a reference to the old setting during that glorified era. In conclusion, Orientalist paintings have opened new understandings towards the Muslim world and until the present time, they have offered a therapeutic, prophylactic space, full of imaginative opportunity of exploration, purchase and consumption. BIBLIOGRAPHY Benjamin, R. 2003, Orientalist aesthetics: Art, colonialism, and French North Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Davies, K. 2005, The Orientalists: Western artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia & India, Laynfaroh, New York, NY. Germaner, S. Inankur, Z. 2004, Constantinople and the Orientalists, Milet Publishing Ltd. Nochlin, L. May 1983, “The Imaginary Orient,” Art in America, p. 123, 127. Said, E. 1979, Orientalism, Vintage, New York. Thornton, L. 1994. The Orientalists: Painter-Travellers, ACR PocheCouleur, Paris, France. Warraq, I. 2007, Defending the West: a Critique Against Edward Said’s Orientalism, Prometheus Books, Amherst, New York. Read More