Varying Religious, Philosophical and Cultural Influences Underpinning the Chinese Medicine Paradigm - Term Paper Example

The varying religious, philosophical and cultural influences underpinning the Chinese medicine paradigm and how they relate to contemporary practice Traditional Chinese Medicine Huang Di’s ‘The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic’ (Huang Di Nei Jing) is one of the earliest known texts, 2,500 years old and the oldest medical textbook in the world, describing Chinese Medicine in great detail. However, knowledge of the ideas upon which it is based is even more ancient and widespread in many cultures. The origins of Chinese medicine are traditionally traced further back to leaders Fu Xi and Shen Nong approximately 5,000 years (Gao, 1998). Fu Xi is believed to have developed the trigrams of ‘I Ching’, and Shen Nong, the Red Emperor founded Chinese herbal medicine. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM ) works on the meridian system, which is a network of ‘channels’ in the body along which the vital energy called qi flows. Acupuncture is one practice that works directly on this system to restore health. During acupuncture treatment, this energy is manipulated on a selection of the meridians by stimulating acupoints so as to balance the positive and negative forces acting upon it. These forces are known as yang and yin respectively. Our understanding of the principles of Chinese medicine thus rests on the knowledge of yin and yang, qi energy, concept of the five elements (or phases), the locations of meridians and acupoints etc. Our focus will be on the cultural, religious and philosophical influences underpinning Chinese medicine. Major Influences on Chinese Medicine The two most significant periods that defined Chinese medicine were the Shang and Zhou dynasties. The later Zhou and early Chin periods are identified as those in which the scientific medical discipline of Chinese medicine was firmly established (Gao, 1998:3) social forces that shaped the Huang Di Nei Jing” (Gao, 1998:3). Together with the Nan Jing of the first century, these documents “trace over approximately 400 years the development of the major conceptual features of the medicine of systematic correspondence” (Birch, 1999:13). The major influencers were the followers of Taoism (Dao) and earlier empiricism, astrologers, the propounders of the five phases and yin-yang philosophy, and supporters of qi. All these philosophies are based on naturalistic concepts pertaining to nature. It was later that more “empirical and rational elements gradually gained ascendancy in the various school and were eventually all united under the strongly reconciliatory humanism of Confucian social and political theory” (Gao, 1998:3). There are also influences of Buddhism on Chinese medicine. Shen Nong wrote the The Red Emperor’s Classic of Herbal Medicine (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing). The practice of healing was a long tradition during the Shang dynasties. It was usually in the form of prayer as many ailments and afflictions whether individual or social were believed to be caused by either the displeasure of ancestors or in some cases natural influences such as ‘wind evil’. In the Zhou period of the 12th century BC, medical care was accorded importance by Huang Di. Initially, ‘demons’ were substituted for ancestors and believed to be the cause of illnesses so shamanism and exorcism were practices alongside herbal therapy. True philosophy however, flowered in the later Zhou period when there were said to be a ‘Hundred Schools of Thought’ flourishing together. Confucius (551-479 BC) was also born in this period as well as the philosopher Lao Tzu (6th century BC) who wrote The Classic of the Way and of Virtue (Dao De Jing) following his enlightenment. Both thinkers were contemporary and reacted to the moral and political chaos that ensued at the time, and promoted spiritual practices to improve people’s lives. But Confucianism differs in emphasising ethics. A new Taoist consciousness also emerged when Lu Tung Pin at the beginning of the Sun dynasty synthesised Taoist, Confucian and Buddhist philosophies (Townsend, 2005). One of the first Taoist practitioners of Chinese medicine was Hua To who lived during the Han period in China. He was famous as having established the use of anaesthesia (mafei san), “furthered the limited Chinese knowledge of anatomy” (wiki4cam, 2009), and devised the Five Animal Play designed to activate the flow of fluid in the body through mimicking animal movements. The Yin and Yang Natures of these Influences The foundations of yin and yang theory and also the five elements are fundamental Taoism (Daoist) concepts laid down during the Zhou dynasty. In this theory everything in the world is divided into polar complements in varying degrees. Yin represents the ‘negative’ or feminine side whereas yang represents the ‘positive’ or masculine side. Yin is associated further with such qualities as passivity, stillness, softness, emptiness and contraction, and yang likewise with its opposites of activity, movement, hardness, fullness and expansion. There is a flux between the two states so when yin reaches its extreme it reverts to yang and vice versa. The concept of balance therefore “does not mean static parity, but a dynamic reversion that perpetually counterbalances all propensities toward one extreme or the other” (Lusthaus, 1995: 14). In this context, an illness occurs in either one or the other extreme conditions and requires the opposing force to restore balance and thereby normal health. Regardless, Taoism is distinctly yin because it is softer and closely aligned with nature. Lao Tzu observed and quite rightly so that the world tends to favour the yang. So he sought to emphasise yin over yang to restore the balance. It is for this reason that in Taoism, yin images are given greater honour and yin values are promoted, Wuwei is practiced as the ‘effortless’ yet effective form of action. He pointed out the usefulness of ‘emptiness’ in things, for example the space in a room, and how ‘softness’ can overcome ‘hardness’ as in water carving rocks. These aforementioned principles are also evident in the practice of martial arts besides Chinese medicine. The spiritual teachings of Taoism advocate a ‘return to infancy’ characterised by softness, innocence and flexibility, as “nothing is deeper or more effective than simplicity” (Lusthaus, 1995) to become ‘uncarved blocks’ which can then be recarved as desired. The practice of meditation associated with stillness and emptiness also demonstrates the yin nature of Taoism. “Human beings are born soft and flexible; when they die they are hard and stiff… Plants arise soft and delicate; when they die they are withered and dry. Thus, the hard and stiff are disciples of death; the soft and flexible are disciples of life. Thus an inflexible army is not victorious; an unbending tree will break. The stiff and beg will be lowered; the soft and flexible will rise.” (Daoching, Ch. 76) In contrast to the yin nature of Taoism, Confucianism is more yang because it is more active, pragmatic, patriarchal and conventional, and concerned with ethics. Confucius held ren (human heartedness) in high esteem. Its essence is love, specifically for fellow human beings. A person who is disciplined with ren is considered as ideal in morality, and this is the goal of Confucian education. It is the practice of li, “a combination of etiquette and ritual” (Losh, 2009) that leads to the realisation of ren, and li instills social and moral order. The higher principle that governs li is yi (righteousness). Thus, Confucianism is governed by practical social precepts; ethical precepts to manage social order. Whereas Taoism, and Buddhism included provide for escape from family structures, Confucian ethics revolves around the family. The Link Between the Macrocosm and Microcosm The Taoist way is to live in harmony with nature, and the Taoist thought is centered on the understanding that people are intimately connected with their surroundings at all levels of being. The mystical side of Taoism that strives for immortality teaches “all the elements of immortality are found within the body as the body is a microcosmic reflection of the universe” (Townsend, 2005). This means that the elements sought or existing in the greater universe are also reflected or are present within each individual. This thinking is common amongst those who advocate meditation. In addition to meditation, Taoists also practice energy exercises known as Qi Gong, which aim “to transform the physical body into an immortal energy body that transcends this world and reunites with the universe” (Ibid). The Dao therefore teaches in a far more cosmic past, there was a ‘cosmic one’, which “describes the original unity of the universe, an undifferentiated energy” (Nadeau, 2006). Further, that this perpetual energy “can be ‘tapped into’ as a source of health, vitality, long life, and supernatural power” (ibid). Taoism also has a rich tradition of hygienic practices, and the importance attached to harmony has a strong influence on the concept of Chinese medicine. By being in a state of harmony at an individual level i.e. being in a good state of health internally, one is automatically in harmony with the natural world i.e. in a good state of health externally. This is the link between the microcosm (individual) and the macrocosm (universe). It has it roots in the knowledge of the fang-shih people who perceived “an interconnected universe in which the macrocosm of Heaven was reflected in the microcosm of Earth” (Fowler, 2008:140). The microcosm-macrocosm link is also present in Confucian thought but there stress is laid on how to lead one’s life better and relate to others (Carter, 2001:65). The ‘five phase theory’ is an evolution of the dualistic yin yang theory. Everything in the universe corresponds to a combination of five fundamental phases. These “are not static entities or elements but rather five stages in the evolution of any phenomenally existing thing which also engender and restrain each other in a constantly changing and dynamic way” (Flaws, 1999). Mentioned by Zou Yan, it “forms the basis of almost all the other theories and practices of Chinese medicine” (ibid) and is therefore an essential concept to grasp for Chinese medicine practitioners. Later in the Nan Jing, the idea of the micro-macrocosmic link was also further developed. This was achieved by the concept of qi, an endless circulation of energy flowing through channels in the body intimately connected with the natural world. This discovery is behind “most of the principles and some of the practices that survive in acupuncture today” (Birch, 1999). The Yin-Yang Balance and the I Ching Old texts describe how “Fu Xi drew the eight trigrams, and created nine needles” (wiki4cam, 2009) by looking upward to heaven to contemplate the images and then downward to contemplate the patterns on earth. The I Ching (Yi Jing) or ‘Book of Changes’ also puts forth the idea about how when things proceed to their extreme, they naturally revert back to their opposite as in Yin-Yang theory. It is another complementary theory of the cosmos. As well as having a profound influence upon Chinese culture in general through classics such as the I Ching, this concept is fundamental to Chinese medicine - for example, when a Yang element within the body is in excess, the corresponding Yin element will be in deficiency. The two are in constant motion, waxing and waning, but always looking to achieve and maintain a harmonious balance. “Yang has its roots in Yin, Yin has its roots in Yang, Without Yin, Yang cannot arise, Without Yang, Yin cannot be born, Yin alone cannot arise; Yang alone cannot grow, Yin and Yang are divisible but inseparable.” (Huang Di Nei Jing) Like the yin-yang interaction and the interplay of the five phases, the I Ching is also very much “a dynamic view of cosmological change and transformation, and can account for the universe and all the manifestations contained within it…” (Fowler, 2008:39) The system at the heart of the I Ching actually existed well before Confucius encapsulated the sixty-four hexagrams (derived from the trigrams) in a text and described them. The I Ching embodies a view of reality as “one of incessant change” (ibid:42) that is rhythmic and conforms to certain patterns. Although each is different, they are all part of a whole that aims for these to be in harmony. The I Ching therefore reflects “the changing resonances of the cosmos” (ibid:43). And, within it is “the idea that the microcosm of Earth is a reflection of the macrocosm and that what happens in one affects the other” (ibid:47). Again, all these ideas present in the I Ching have obvious parallels with the previous frameworks for understanding nature discussed above. Contemporary Practices of Chinese Medicine Chinese medicine is thus an ancient system that is well established with underpinnings from strong religious/philosophical traditions of Taoism and Confucianism and other historical influences. But it also enjoys resurgence in interest as well as greater mainstream acceptance. In Australia, Chinese medicine was introduced in the 1850s and its use is now growing rapidly (AACMA, 2009). The latter has been made possible due to the ability to measure microcurrents, knowledge of molecular biology and advances in medical imaging (Schlebusch, 2005). There is also evidence to suggest that polarized media in the form of stable water clusters may be involved (Yin Lo, 2004) hence the yin-yang polarization, and also a close association with the nervous and endocrine systems of the body. Its historical roots however, the fact that Chinese medicine and the theories that form its basis have stood the test of time, are a greater testimony to its strength. It is simply a well-established method of practising medicine that has proven to be effective for thousands of years. The practical lessons we could learn from the theoretical basis of Chinese medicine at the very least is to live in harmony with nature; in accordance with the interaction of yin and yang and the five phases, to eat moderately, and preserve our strength to live longer. More inclined individuals can practice Qi Gong, meditation and other practices to purify the physical body and work for higher transformation. References AACMA. (2009) TCM in Australia. http://www.acupuncture.org.au/history_of_aacma.cfm [June 8, 2009]. Birch, Stephen and Felt, Robert L. (1999) Understanding acupuncture. Elsevier Health Sciences. Carter, Robert Edgar. (2001) Encounter with Enlightenment: A Study of Japanese Ethics. SUNY Press. Fishman, Jon. (2009) The History of Acupuncture. http://acupuncture.com/education/theory/historyacu.htm [June 9, 2009]. Flaws, Bob. (Translator). (1999) Classic of Difficulties (Nan Jing Translation). Blue Poppy Press. Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2005) An introduction to the philosophy and religion of Taoism: pathways to immortality. Susses Academic Press. Fowler, Jeaneane D. and Fowler, Merv. (2008) Chinese religions: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. Gao, Duo. (Ed.). (1998) Encyclopedia of Chinese Medicine. Carlton Books Ltd. 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