Mens Perception Towards Ideals of Beauty in Russia and Africa - Coursework Example

Intercultural Competence MENS PERCEPTION TOWARDS IDEALS OF BEAUTY, AFRICA VERSES RUSSIA. Intercultural Competence Abstract Ideals of beauty have held different perceptions in every period of history and standards on what was and was not considered beautiful have always varied with reference to geography, race, culture, and history of the location. Comparisons can be drawn On the basis of literature, anthropology and contemporary views of people from Africa and Russia, The impact of these factors on the two genders surfaces distinctly in men and women as regards the ideals of beauty and its perception by each. The essay illustrates these differences of opinions and the variety of notions derived about beauty in men from Africa as compared to the men from Russia as intercultural competence. Intercultural Competence Men’s Perception towards Ideals of Beauty, Africa Verses Russia. “Every period of history held its own standards on what was and was not considered beautiful” (Sullivan 2002). It is unarguably true that ideals of beauty have always changed with time and Men and women have different notions of beauty. Although Geography, race, and culture has played a dominant role in evolving concepts of beauty; Literature, anthropology, history and contemporary views illustrate their diversity in different parts of the world. Never the less culture still remains a deep rooted factor of governance. However globalization, technology and media have become a strong influence over pre existing ideals of beauty. Men’s perceptions of ideals of beauty vis a vis in Africa and Russia differ widely; the comparison brings forth vivid concepts ranging from race, symmetry, skin color, body size and even hair as determinants of beauty evident from literary works of social scientists, psychologists and the surveys of electronic media. Although the concepts of beauty the world over vary in ideals, they can be generalized to quite an extent with reference to those in Russia and also in Africa on the basis of tradition and culture in those countries. Men have always vied beauty differently than their counterpart genders. Occidental vividness in their perception is evident in the study reports of anthropologists. While men in Russia incline towards features of Caucasian race, those in Africa signify African primitiveness in their ideals of beauty. The Russian men may prefer, sharp noses, dark eyes, long flowing strands of hair and dainty build in their women, the African distinctly prefers buxom and sturdy females as beautiful women. Beauty has always been a virtue sought after by men in the form of women who strived to beautify Intercultural Competence themselves in the eyes of their men. Procreation was the prime aim of women and to lure men to promiscuous relationships was their utmost ambition as endowed to them by nature. In Beauty and Culture the concept of beauty as seen by African men elucidates “Throughout history, people in every culture have sought to change the natural appearance of their bodies”. “They reshape, sculpt their bodies and adorn them with paint, cosmetics, clothing and jewellery. These customs however are diverse and particular to a culture at a specific period of time” (Sullivan 2000). A study in Quantifying Female Bodily Attractiveness claims to investigate what makes a female figure attractive; an extensive experiment was conducted using high- quality photographic stimulus material and several systematically varied figure parameters. The objective was to predict female bodily attractiveness by using figure measurements. Methods: For generating stimulus material, a frontal-view photograph of a woman with normal body proportions was taken. Using morphing software, 243 variations of this photograph were produced by systematically manipulating the following features: weight, hip width, waist width, bust size, and leg length. More than 34,000 people participated in the web-based experiment and judged the attractiveness of the figures. All of the altered figures were measured (e.g., bust width, under bust width, waist width, hip width, and so on). Based on these measurements, ratios were calculated (e.g., waist-to-hip ratio). A multiple Intercultural Competence regression analysis was designed to predict the attractiveness rank of a figure using figure measurements. Results: The results show that the attractiveness of a womans figure may be predicted by using her body measurements. The regression analysis explains a variance of 80 percent. Important predictors are bust-to-under bust ratio, bust-to- waist ratio, waist-to-hip ratio, and an androgyny index (an indicator of a typical female body). (Grundl, Martin, Marita, 2009). Hadza emphasizes the role of culture in defining a concept of beauty in all men remarking: Many studies show agreement within and between cultures for general judgments of facial attractiveness. Few studies, however, have examined the attractiveness of specific traits and few have examined preferences in hunter- gatherers. We found that symmetry was more attractive than asymmetry across both the cultures and was more strongly preferred” The different ecological conditions may play a role in generating this difference. Such variation in preference may be adaptive if it reflects adaptation to local conditions. Symmetry is thought to indicate genetic quality, which may be more important among the Hadza with much higher mortality rates from birth onwards. Hadza men who were more often named as good hunters placed a greater value on symmetry in female faces. These results suggest that high quality Hadza men are more discriminating in their choice of faces. (2004). In Journal of Black Studies “While men consider symmetry to be an ideal in most cultures it is not so in women” (2004) “The explanations put forward by Rhodes et al. Intercultural Competence (2001) to explain similarity in preference are that similar visual experience between cultures could explain agreement or a similar pressure to choose symmetric partners has led to preferences in both cultures” (2004). Besides the fact that cultures iconize a particular concept of beauty it is also true that psychology governs the ideals of beauty. The origins of interest in bodily beauty were explained by Sigmund Freud, the founder of modern psychology, as being sexual drives: through a transformation, sexual attraction is moved away from the primary sexual characteristics (reproductive organs) and instead to the secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. womens more rounded forms and breasts; mens facial hair and deeper voices). Anthropologists highlight the notions of beauty debating its focus around females and sexuality.” An anthropological explanation for the human interest in beauty has been offered by Robert Brain: human beings want to set themselves apart from non-humans, and therefore make alterations to the body that animals would not be capable of making. Admiration turns these alterations into marks of beauty. Exactly which alterations are admired depends on cultural preferences. Beautification strategies of one culture might, in another culture, is perceived as mutilations and as marks of ugliness. Body decorations can also mark the successful initiation or the identity of a person. But making a difference between humans and non-humans is, according to Brain, basic to those scarifications, tattooing, and colorings of the body that are associated with beauty (2004). Intercultural Competence It is argued in Cultural variations in ideals, that “Neither the psychological nor the anthropological approaches above can explain the variety over time and between different societies as to what is considered beautiful. All in all, this variation makes a strong case against the idea of some universal components of beauty” (Little, Apicella, Marlowe, 2004) Ideals of beauty vary between and within societies: values, norms, and tastes differ from group to group; the different sexes are used for constituting different genders; and relations of power, e.g. between genders, ethnic groups, and classes, make one ideal of beauty dominant over others. Western cultures have attributed beauty to women to the point where it is difficult to talk of the beauty of mens bodies. The nineteenth-century term for describing a pleasant appearance in a man was neither ‘handsome’ nor ‘good-looking’, but ‘manly’, since beauty was reserved for women, and today ‘real men’ might be ‘handsome’ or ‘good- looking’, but ‘beautiful’ is considered too effeminate. The ancient Greeks were especially attentive to the beauty of young mens bodies, and the Nuba of Sudan and the Wodaabe men in Niger also have no difficulty in associating men and beauty. Indeed, the latter stage a beauty contest for men, gerewol, to express their special birthright of beauty and their true identity among African people.”(2004). The Journal of Black studies, examined the concepts of beauty in Black African men, pointing out “This study examined African American men’s perceptions of body figure attractiveness based on their acculturation levels. Seventy-five African American men between the ages of 18 and 35 attending a traditionally White university in Intercultural Competence the Southeast region of the United States volunteered for this study. Results from a one-way ANOVA revealed that African American men perceived women with smaller body figures as more attractive than women with larger body figures. However, as it relates to the ideal body figure to date, African American men chose the moderate (medium) body figure. Additionally, there were no statistically significant differences between African American men’s perceptions of body figure attractiveness and their acculturation levels (2004). Whereas men from the Eastern European part of the globe, Russia, Motorin defied the view as “We shouldnt adore only Venus of Melos, but also Apollo of Belvedez; and a man shouldnt be shy of his nudity, but should be proud of his naked body -- no less than a woman. We must remember, after all, that the Best Culture in the World -- the Ancient Greek culture -- considered Mens Beauty higher than womens, and it was precisely the Ancient Classical Greeks culture which was the most Patriarchalistic”. Therefore the contrast in the concept of men’s ideals of beauty in African men verses Russian men is highly juxtaposed in lieu of their perception of African and Caucasian features in women. Race superimposes the concept in the two ideals. However “The male beauties of the Wodaabe people in Niger challenge any Euro- American attempt to argue for the universality of beauty criteria, and point to the importance of ethnicity. To beautify themselves, the men apply yellow color to their faces in order to lighten them, draw a line from the forehead to the tip of the Intercultural Competence nose to make the latter appear longer; blacken their lips; and, at the height of their striving for beauty, squint at the women. Taking the ethnic perspective further, the Nuba of Sudan found little beauty in the appearance of the English anthropologist James Faris; he had a beard, hair on his arms, and white skin. All were appalling features to a people to whom well-groomed hair, a smooth body, and a deep, rich black color are central ingredients of the body beautiful. Indeed, to the Nuba it was shaving that distinguished humans from animals, and he appropriately got the nickname wõte — monkey. The ethnic component also emerges in the Miss America, Miss World, and Miss Universe contests, which have been strongly hampered by the fact that the finalists and winners are predominantly women with white skin and Caucasian features. Women from other ethnic groups have had little chance of winning these contests, organized by white Euro- Americans, until recently (2004). Globalization, technology and media have brought about a new concept of beauty in the modern African and Russian men. “Despite the acceptance of Black models as beautiful in Europe; there are definite racist corollaries between Europe and the United States. Both countries operated on an uneven accounting field. As noted in Skin Deep (Summers 1998), double bookings were performed (a practice of booking a white model and a Black model for the same shoot to target specific print audiences) and Black models received less that half the salary of white models. Another negative consequence that many Black models faced in these Euro-dominant societies was distaste for natural Intercultural Competence Black hair (kinky, curly, braids, etc…). As long as the unsuspecting public was appeased with the new, beautiful, and still fair skinned faces, the cosmetics companies who sponsored them could breathe an uneasy sigh of relief. The bottom line is that many Black women conformed to societies ideals of beauty. “We were willing to conform. We didn’t fight it. If you don’t give much thought to your identity you didn’t wear it right. You didn’t wear it with confidence. You had to feel and accept it. But most of us don’t have that type of strength. We just go with the flow (Summers 1998:141). Contrasting Globalized Beauty Elaine Evan’s comments on a trip to Africa where she witnessed first hand the effects of the depiction of African-American beauty on African woman. “Some African women have taken skin whitening creams to the limit. I’ve seen them mix those creams with Clorox, and paint it all over their body. They burn all their skin off, and then put oil on it, suffering all that pain just to become light. But they’re following us” (Summers 1998:142). Bertha, a barmaid in Dares Saloan, Tanzania, said in the past she used Mkorogo because “a lighter skin means beauty, and most men go for white women” (Munro 2001:11). Although “beauty in women evolved in order to attract and hold the interest of men, the standards of beauty varied from culture to culture, from time to time, but there is something within female psychology which leads women to want to be beautiful and attractive to men (Sones, 2002). Whether from Russia or Africa, “there is no culture which defied the concept of beauty as ideals pertaining to the beauty of women” (Sones, 2002). Intercultural Competence An interesting perceptions of beauty by Russian men asserts that European ideal of beauty of that time was based on the impression made by art (Ellis, 1894). However, in Erasing the African identity, in a recent BBC debate “The good, bad and ugly hair days” (African Manes), a documentary examining the culture of African hair, I read a troubling comment that: “In Africa, the preferred look seems to be straightened hair over natural, kinky hair. Natural hair wearers are perceived as being deliberately non-conformist or religious.” Wait a minute! Why the stereotypical perception on going natural? What is so wrong with the natural African look? It is obvious the ideal of beauty in most African countries has changed, and continues to change by the season. The typical African has dark Ebony skin, big brown eyes, big lips and a short nose but not anymore! Many are going Western! This explicitly defines the changing ideals of beauty in African men. But in Russian view of beauty- women, Axinia confesses “When I was a child, I never liked to draw the blond princesses, mine had always been dark-headed. Since that time I had somewhere deep in my head an image of a surreally beautiful woman with un usually long dark curly hair, almond-shaped eyes and a thin wrist; somehow it was my ideal, and that was not an image a child gets from the images of the Soviet culture! (2007). The changing ideals of both mens and womens beauty is linked to societys perception of appropriate gender roles. The shifts from the maternal, robust body of the mid and late Victorian ages, to the slender ideal of the 1920s, to the compact, slim body of the present Intercultural Competence reflect changes in the perception of the proper role for women: from mother and caretaker of house and home, through the independent young women of the 1920s, to the active professional and disciplined women of the present. Beauty, however, does not only relate to the ideal roles ascribed to men and women, but is part of ongoing social identification processes. The explanations put forward by Rhodes et al. to explain similarity in preference are that similar visual experience between cultures could explain agreement or a similar pressure to choose symmetric partners has led to preferences in both cultures (Journal of Black Studies, 2004). Yet large women are undoubtedly more representative of traditional African fashion ideals than are thin specimens. “There, thin is not in, it is equated with poverty” (Smith, 2001). Despite the acceptance of Black models as beautiful in Europe, there are definite racist corollaries between Europe and the United States. Both countries operated on an uneven accounting field. Euro-dominant societies were distaste for natural Black hair (kinky, curly, braids, etc…) the bottom line is that many Black women conformed to societies ideals of beauty. “We just go with the flow” (Summers 1998:141) Ideals of beauty have held different perceptions in every period of history and standards on what was and was not considered beautiful have always varied with reference to geography, race and culture. Comparisons drawn On the basis of literature, anthropology and contemporary views of men from Africa and Russia, as regards the ideals of beauty bring forth differences and similarities in them as enumerated in their studies on intercultural competence in a global world Intercultural Competence References Angeloni, E. (2001). Anthropology 2001/2002. Mc Graw Connecticut: Hill/Dushkin Axinia. What 1000 Russian men told about their Ideal Woman August 2, 2008 http://shaktipower.wordpress.com/2007/02/24/the-image-of-a-primordial-woman/ The Image of a Primordial Woman. 2007 February 24. Retrieved 23 November, 2009 from http://shaktipower.wordpress.com/2007/02/24/the-image-of-a- primordial-woman/ Banner, L. W. (1983). American beauty. Alfred Knopf, New York. Becker, A. E. (1995). Body, self, and society. The view from Fiji University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Brain, R. (1979). The decorated body. Hutchinson and Co., London. Ellis, H. (1894). A Man and Woman. Beauty of Woman’s Body: Leipzig. Retrieved November 24, 2009. from - http://russianartnudes.com/ perceptions of beauty. Gründl, Martin Ph.D.; Eisenmann-Klein, Marita M.D.; Prantl, Lukas M.D., Ph.D. ©2009American Society of Plastic Surgeons Retrieved 23 November, 2009 from http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1629/3113.full Intercultural Competence Preferences for symmetry in human faces in two cultures: data from the UK and the Hadza, an isolated group of hunter-gatherers Anthony C Little1*, Coren L Apicella2 and Frank W Marlowe3 + Author Affiliations Journal of Black Studies – sage journals online (Google Scholar. Right arrow, Articles by Webb, T. T.. Right arrow ... However, as it relates to the ideal body figure to date, African American men chose the moderate ... Psychological implications of beauty and African American women . ...Retrieved November 23, 2009 from jbs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/34/3/370)http://jbs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abst ract/34/3/370 African American Men’s Perceptions of Body Figure Attractiveness , An Acculturation Study: Tammy T. Webb; North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University .E. Joan Looby, Mississippi State University, Regina Fults-McMurtery, Tougaloo College. 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Introduction to Cross Cultural Psychology. Needham Heights. Allyn and Bacon. Motorin, M., N.The Opinion of One Russian Patriarchalist on Mens Rights (edited by Peter Zohrab) Retrieved 23 November, 2009 from http://www.answers.com/topic/beauty http://www.africanloft.com/erasing-the- african-identity/Erasing the African identity, Russian view of beauty- women http://1000petals.wordpress.com/2008/08/02/what-1000-russian-men-told-about- their-ideal-woman/ Roybal, V. (2002). The Bizarre and Beautiful. Beauty Worlds: Retrieved May 14, 2003, from www.http: beautyworlds.com Intercultural Competence Smith, A., D. (2001). Fat is where its at, say new South African beauty queens. Johannesburg: Retrieved 23 November, 2009 from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/w, orld/africa/fat-is-where-its-at-say-new- south-african-beauty-queens-619581.html Sones, M.(2002). Beauty, Fashion and the Coolidge Effect, Beauty Worlds: The culture of Beauty. Retrieved May 12, 2003 from www.http: beautyworlds.com Sullivan, D. (2000). Cosmetic Surgery. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Retrieved November 23, 2009. from http://journals.lww.com/plasreconsurg/Abstract/2009/03000/Quantifying_Female _Bodily_Attractiveness_by_a.37.aspx Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery: March 2009 - Volume 123 - Issue 3 - pp 1064-1071 doi: 10.1097/PRS.0b013e318199f7a of Anthropology, Florida State University Tallahassee, FL 32306-4531, USA: Author and address for correspondence: Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK (anthony.little@stir.ac.uk) Read More