Cultural Understanding Of Emotion - Essay Example

Running Head: Cultural understanding of emotion CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING OF EMOTION Emotion is the regulator of individual behavior in society. The expression of emotion differs within different cultures. Western cultures favor a more individualistic perspective, where an individual’s concept of self is tied up with the achievement of personal goals and objectives. The expression of emotion is therefore also attuned to the achievement of personal goals. However in collective societies such as those in Asia, the self construct is an interdependent one. As a result, emotional expression is restricted to that which does not disturb the collective harmony. Individuals may exhibit greater sensitivity to others and the expression of emotion may be more covert as compared to western societies. CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING OF EMOTION Introduction: Campos and Barrett (1984:233) have described emotion as “regulators and determinants of both intra-personal and interpersonal behaviors.” The construction of emotion in the West is based upon the principle of the autonomy of the individual, therefore individual differences are praised and supported in the societies of America and Western Europe. However, as opposed to this, Asian societies place a greater value upon interconnectedness, therefore values such as self sacrifice for the benefit of others and the maintenance of social harmony are seen to be important in a collective society. As opposed to individual goals, it is collective goals that are deemed more important in Asian societies. This also impacts upon the emotional expressions in these respective societies. While western societies favor a more open display of emotions, in Asian countries, the display of emotions such as anger and love are more covert. While the focus on self may make individuals in Western nations less sensitive to the needs of others, in Asian societies, the display of individual emotions that could cause pain or hurt to others may be frowned upon. Cultural Theories: Lively and Powall (2006) have carried out an examination of the strategies that individuals use to express emotion. They have focused in particular upon anger and how it is used as a means to express emotion. They examine anger both in the home and work environment and the degree to which the expression of anger as an emotion is influenced by gender, race and education. Their findings showed that there was rather than gender or education being significant factors in expression of anger as an emotion, it was the environment that produced a difference in the manner of expression of emotion through anger. Individuals appeared more likely to directly express anger towards the family member who caused the emotion and less likely to directly express it in the workplace. Therefore, the constraints placed by societal norms are likely to have played a role in the results. One of the common theoretical approaches to emotion is the cultural perspective, adopted by Hochschild (1975) who introduced the notion that there are rules associated with feeling emotion and expressing them. According to Hochschild, there are cultural norms in society that specify the kind of emotion, the extent of that emotion and the level of feeling that are appropriate in any situation and these rules set out the manner in which emotion may be expressed within any given situation. Culture may determine the manner of expression of emotion, as spelt out by Markus and Kitayama, who offer the view that a “collective emotional reality” exists that binds all the members of a particular culture and socializes all of them to have “shared views of how and what to feel.” (Markus and Kitayama, 1994:343). However, irrespective of which culture an individual may belong to, there is a universal human need for love, acceptance and meaningful ties to others. Therefore when individuals conform to the emotional mores of the culture they live in, they gain such acceptance; on the other hand, aberrant emotional behavior may trigger negative emotions such as fear, anger or shame. Therefore, emotions are in fact the spurs that encourage an individual to engage in culturally appropriate behavior in adhering to a specific pattern in feelings, emotions and actions. Western cultures are traditionally more individualistic and independent, while eastern cultures are more interdependent. Seeley (2000) has distinguished the emotional perceptions of individuals in western societies and Asian societies. Within individualistic cultures such as northern Europe and the United States, the notion of self is linked up with being independent and different from others, not only in terms of keeping his thoughts, feelings and emotions private but also in expressing himself in such a manner that he is distinguished from others. Therefore an individual may experience positive emotions when he receives praise for his courage to be different in expressing his opinions, or feel hurt when others overlook his individual talents. Asian societies are not individualistic but collective, therefore the self in these societies is viewed as a member of a group whose purpose is to foster the interconnectedness of the group, therefore it is not the expression of individual wishes and emotions that is important; rather the individual must subordinate or control his own desires in order to facilitate the harmony and unity of the group. (Markus, Kitayama and Kurukowa, 2000:95). As a result, the very same emotions that promote the display of independent thought which are applauded in an individualistic society may be contraindicated in a collective society, where a failure to anticipate and provide for the needs of others in order to concentrate on individual desires may be associated with feelings of guilt and shame. In an individualistic society, a display of anger may be acceptable, however the same display of anger would be unacceptable in a collective society where cultural values focus on maintaining connectedness and harmony with others. While individualistic societies may permit emotions that conflict with the family, a similar display of emotions conflicting with the welfare of the family are likely to be frowned upon in collective cultures (Seeley 2000). Self Construals: On this basis therefore, individuals from the Western countries are likely to have independent self construals and therefore the aspects that they will value highly include being a unique individual, expressing and asserting oneself and promoting one’s own inner goals.(Walker et al, 2005) As opposed to this, Asian cultures may foster interdependent self construals, therefore values that are rated highly are those of fitting in and belonging with the group, taking into account the feelings of others and ensuring that harmony is maintained, and also restraining one’s own ambitions in order to promote the goals of others. Walker et al (2005) have also detailed how self construal and emotion are linked. The kind of self construal an individual possess will influence the display of emotion. While those with an independent self construal are likely to engage in emotions that make them feel good about themselves and enhance their individuality; therefore they may display less sensitivity to the feelings of others. Those with an interdependent self construal on the other hand are likely to be moderate in their emotional expressions and are more likely to be sensitive to the needs of others and the impact their emotions could have on others. Approaches to studying cultural emotions: There are many approaches that may be utilized in the study of culture. A historical approach examines cultural values and emotions through existing historical accounts, while ethnographic studies have undertaken the study of culture and emotion over different generations in order to examine the differing perspectives. Cross cultural studies take into account the expression of emotion in different cultures and the factors restraining or promoting the display and expression of emotion. Hogan (2003) undertakes a cross cultural study of human emotion through the stories and fables prevalent in a particular culture. He points out that story telling performs a vital function in peoples’ lives because it reinforces individual capability to empathize with others and to learn from other peoples’ experiences. Hogan terms his study as a cross cultural study of “the relation between two crucial elements of literature and the human mind –narrative and emotion.”(Hogan 2003:4). Throughout his book, he explains how storytelling affects and is affected by the emotions and plots of stories that deal with human suffering may be the narrative expression of the repression of emotions within societies, which leads to the suffering. Li et al (2006) have used IOS (Inclusion of the Other in the Self) construal scales to evaluate cultural differences in expression of emotion between Anglo-Canadians, Mainland-Chinese and Indians. These scales include graphic representations through Venn diagrams to measure relationships with closest family members, friends, colleagues and neighbors. Their findings in the study showed that Canadians were the most independent, while the Chinese were more interdependent as compared to the Canadians. However, there was one aspect where Canadians were as interdependent as the Chinese and that was in the relationship to their closest friends. However the Canadians were more independent than Indians in all the seven categories of relationships that were measured in this study. The Chinese were as interdependent as the Indians in three categories of connectedness – that with closest family members, close family members and relatives. The variables in this study also ensured that age did not interfere with the results, since attachment styles remained the same. This study reflects the impact of western culture upon Chinese society, and the gradual transition to independent self construal that may be occurring in some Asian societies. Chung (2006) carried out an ethnographic study to examine the cultural differences in the manner of expression of emotion in western and eastern societies. Chung (2006) examined the influence of culture on the expression of human emotions, in particular reference to the problems faced by Chinese immigrant families where differences in cultural mores regarding expression of emotion leads to conflicts between parents and children. The children of immigrant families tended to favor the more independent self construal prevalent in western societies and therefore laid greater focus on self, which was in conflict with the greater value placed upon collective harmony and the subordination of self for the benefit of others that exists in a collective society. Conclusions: The expression of emotion is largely conditioned by the social and cultural mores that are imposed upon an individual, and may vary in accordance with what is considered appropriate and what is frowned upon in a particular society. Culture dictates the extend and type of emotional expression that is acceptable and most individuals are likely to conform to cultural mores in order to be accepted by other members in society. Therefore the development of self construct is also framed by society, since Western cultures favor an individualistic perspective where the focus is upon individual achievements of a person. The display of emotion that favors or enhances individual goals will therefore be accepted in Western societies, although cultural mores may dictate that certain environments such as work places should be neutral in an emotional sense while the families are the bed of emotion. However in collective societies, the display of emotions and feelings may be more covert, since it is the overall harmony that is considered vital. Therefore individuals are expected to subordinate their own selfish goals and objectives in favor of promoting the goals of other sand being sensitive to their needs. As a result, the overt display of personal emotions that could cause disturbances to others may be frowned upon. While in Western societies, it would be acceptable for a person to express anger against family members, in collective societies such as Asian societies, it may be unacceptable for a younger family member to express anger against an older one, in the interest of maintaining the sanctity of the sagacity of age. Therefore emotional expression will differ and be conditioned by the cultural and societal environment that an individual lives and moves around in. References: * Chung, Irene W, 2006. “A cultural perspective on emotions and behavior: An empathic pathway to examine intergenerational conflicts in Chinese immigrant families.” Families in Society, 87(3): 367-377 * Hochschild, Arlie, 1975. “The Sociology of feeling and emotion: Selected possibilities.” IN “Another voice: Feminist perspectives on social life and social science.”(Marcia Millman and Rosabeth M Kanter eds) New York: Anchor at pp 280-307 * Hogan, Patrick Colm, 2003. “The mind and its stories: Narrative Universals and Human Emotion.” New York: Cambridge University Press * Kitayama, S, Markus, H,R. and Kurokawa, M, 2000. “Culture, emotion and well being: Good feelings in Japan and United States.” Cognition and Emotion, 14 :93-124 * Li, Han Z, Zhang, Zhi, Bhatt, Gira and Yum, Young-Ok, 2006. “Rethinking Culture and Self Construal: China as a Middle land.” The Journal of Social Psychology, 146(5): 591-611 * Lively, Kathryn J and Powell, Brian, 2006. “Emotional expression at work and at home: Domain, status or individual characteristics?” Social Psychology Quarterly, 69(1): 17-29 * Marcus, M.R. and Kitayama, S, 1994. “The cultural construction of self and emotion: implications for social behavior” IN Kitayama, S and Markus, H.R.(edn) “Emotion and Culture” Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association at pp 89-132 * Seeley, K.M., 2000. “Cultural Psychotherapy.” New Jersey: Jason Aronson, Inc. * Walker, Gordon J, Deng, Jinyang and Dieser, Rodney B, 2005. “Culture, self- construal and Lesiure theory and practice.” Journal of Leisure research, 37(1): 77-100 Read More