Standard Procedure for the Identification of a Drug of Abuse - Coursework Example

Drug and Drug of Abuse Student’s Name University/Institution Course Date 1 a. Drug and a drug of abuse Drug is a broader term that covers any chemical substance with specific biological effects when taken by humans as well as animals. However, clear definition depends on specific usage such as recreational drugs or specific field of study like pharmacology. From whichever viewpoint or definition, a drug is defined by its biological effects or the effects on normal operation of the body cells. This is because, a drug produce alien substances in the cells. Consequently, such substances can be used by the cell to repair any damages or can also cause breakdown of cell components or its structure. Any alterations that occur inside the cell after introduction of a drug can be similar to what occurs naturally in the body or have negative effect. The term drug of abuse covers any drug taken for other reasons other than medicinal ones. In most cases, it is taken for mind-altering effect and eventually leads to addition and dependence, physical and mental damage (Edwards & Aronson, 2000, 1256). The occurrence of negative health effects from drug exposure result from numerous factors including: Type of drug involved. All types of drug have the potential of producing some health effects. However, the main difference on how drug cause health effects is the amount of energy in the particles of a drug. The energy of such particles determines their level of penetration into body tissues and the energy they can transmit directly or indirectly to the body cells. In addition, the energy in the particles determines the duration a certain drug can take for its effects to be felt in the body (Büttner, 2011, 120). Dosage received. For any drug, higher dose intake or ingestion leads to higher likelihood of health effects. In most cases, taking a higher dosage than the one prescribed by health care giver is taken as drug abuse. Rate through which a dose is received. Body tissues can receive higher doses over a certain period of time. If such dosage occur over some days or weeks, the result is often less serious if the same dosage was taken in minutes. Exposed body part. The impact of a drug is felt differently by different parts of the body. Extreme parts such as feet or hands can receive greater amount of drug and manifest less damages compared to blood forming organs. Most organs in the torso can be adversely affected by drugs and thus incur a higher level of damage (Iorio, et al 2010, 14622). The age of a drug user. The sensitivity of body cells to drugs is higher in infants and young people whose cells are rapidly dividing. However, as a person ages, the rate of cells division slows. Eventually, the effects of a drug can be less damaging in adults compared to damages in young people. Biological differences. Some people have higher sensitivity to effects of drugs compared to others even though most of such studies may not be conclusive (Nielsen, et al, 2012, 1157). 1 b. Standard procedure for the identification of a drug of abuse According to Degenhardt & Hall (2012), drug of abuse is mainly identified with the consequences of its use. No matter the amount or how often a drug user consumes, if the drug causes problems in user’s life, it can be taken as a drug of abuse p.62. A more standard procedure can help in identifying a drug of abuse, including: The user spends much time thinking or using a drug or figuring out on how to get or experience a drug’s effects. The user loses control over drug use by using more or feeling powerless to stop using more than what they plan to take. The user building up a drug tolerance where they use more amounts to get the same effects attained with smaller amounts. Taking drugs to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms like nausea, depression, sweating, anxiety, shaking and restlessness. Continued use of drugs despite the knowledge of inflicted hurt such as infections, depression, and mood swings but use it anyway. Abandoning activities such as hobbies, socializing and sport that was routine in the past. 2. How Cocaine is made As detailed in Alcohol Rehab (2014), cocaine is obtained from coca plant or Erythorxylum genus. There are about 200 species of Erythorxylum genus but only two contain significant levels of the naturally occurring alkaloid that make cocaine. The plants grown in higher and cooler climates usually have the highest content of cocaine. The leaves stripped from such plant are dried to brittle or transported to illicit laboratory where cocaine is harvested from the leaves. The leaves are synthesized to a paste, a process facilitated by use of toxic chemicals. Majorly, cocaine paste can be made through acid or solvent extraction. In acid extraction, diluted sulphuric acid is added in a pit where cocoa plant leaves are placed. Through crushing, the leaves and acid mixture vigorously crush for about two hours. The acid then convert the content of cocaine in the leaves into cocaine sulfate (Alcohol Rehab 2014). The sulfate is then removed and through heating, a waxy residue is obtained. A filtration follows, where the remaining plant matter are removed. Lime or carbonate is then added to the liquid that is left and stirred vigorously to make curdled coca paste. Kerosene is then added to mix the curdled mixture which is then re-filtered in order to isolate the paste. Finally, the paste is further processed by adding more sulphuric acid and then dried for packaging. Solvent extraction is another way through which cocaine paste is extracted. In the first stage, cocoa plant leaves are finely chopped and then mixed with small amount of water and lime or carbonate. Diesel fuel or kerosene is then added to coca leaf and lime mixture which is stirred vigorously for up to three days using a cement mixer or a washing machine. Eventually, the process removes the cocaine content from the leaves to the liquid. However, in some cases, poorer manufacturers can carry out the whole process by hand or using leaf mulching machine. The liquid with extracted cocaine is then heated to remove wax found in coca leaves and filtered to sieve the plant matter. The resultant large amount of liquid is mixed again by adding sulphuric acid. The added acid leads to conversion of cocaine free base to finer cocaine sulfate. The mixture then filtrate caustic soda or lime. The lime neutralizes sulphuric acid resulting to a gummy and yellow solid chemical from filtration. The yellow paste is dried and packaged for use or shipped for further extraction to some laboratories. The coca paste obtained from the above processes is further processed to an ingestible product. The process is purely purification where the paste is dissolved by adding smaller amount of potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid. The chemicals are powerful oxidizers reacting with impurities in coca paste and changing its color from yellow-brown to faint white or colorless. The sulphuric acid is then neutralized by adding ammonia to the filtered colorless solution. The product is dried to cocaine hydrochloride which is white in color and crystalline powder. The end product is water soluble to facilitate injection by users which reduce the possibility on the drug to form crump that can lead to cardiac arrest once ingested. Cocaine hydrochloride is salt-like form which is easily absorbed into the blood-stream after injection or when snorted. In addition, cocaine hydrochloride can be converted into crack cocaine in some cases by cooking it with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate. The cooked cocaine often leads to intense energy, aggression and hyperactivity when smoked or inhaled as a vapor (Davis, 2010, 375). 3. How amphetamine is synthesized Amphetamine is synthesized from a natural occurring substance known as ephedra obtained from Mu-Huange plant. There are other forms of amphetamines that are made of unnaturally occurring products. According to Benyamin, amphetamine is not a natural product since it is synthesized in the lab where ephedra is a primary component, p.1. A mixture of phenylacetone, ehtanol, ammonia and Mercury chloride is warmed and stirred vigorously to facilitate a reaction to take place. Warming is then stopped immediately after which the mixture is refluxed through vigorous stirring for two hours. The concentration is poured into ice water, alkalined with potassium hydroxide and extracted through the use of ether. The extraction is then treated with hydrochloric acid and the extracted organic layer dried over sodium sulphate. When the ether evaporates, the residue distilled yields amphetamine (Allen Jr, 2014, 54). References Alcohol Rehab, 2014. How Cocaine is Made. Retrieved, 11 Feb 2015 from http://alcoholrehab.com/drug-addiction/how-cocaine-is-made/. Allen Jr, L V, 2014, Adderall 1 mg/mL Oral Liquid, US Pharm, 39(11), 54-55. Benyamin, 25th June 2013, Synthesis of Amphetamine Sulfate (Adderall) from common Ingredients, Retrieved; 11 Feb 2015 from http://mentalmana.blogspot.com/2013/06/synthesis-of-amphetamine-from-common.html. Büttner, A 2011, Review: the neuropathology of drug abuse, Neuropathology and applied neurobiology, 37(2), 118-134. Davis, L 2010, Rock, Powder, Sentencing-Making Disparate Impact Evidence Relevant in Crack Cocaine Sentencing. J. Gender Race & Just., 14, 375. Degenhardt, L, & Hall, W 2012, Extent of illicit drug use and dependence, and their contribution to the global burden of disease, The Lancet, 379(9810), 55-70. Edwards, I R, & Aronson, J K 2000, Adverse drug reactions: definitions, diagnosis, and management, The Lancet, 356(9237), 1255-1259. Iorio, F., et al 2010, Discovery of drug mode of action and drug repositioning from transcriptional responses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(33), 14621-14626. Nielsen, D A, et al 2012, Epigenetics of drug abuse: predisposition or response, Pharmacogenomics, 13(10), 1149-1160. Read More