There Should Be Development of a Market for Human Organs - Essay Example

Contemporary Issues in Marketing Module: Human Organs by of 06 May Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction 1 2.0 Sale of Human Organs- Why is there Controversy? 1-2 3.0 There are Insufficient Kidney Donors to Meet a Huge Demand 2 4.0 There should be Development of a Market for Human Organs 3 5.0 There should be No Development of a Market for Human Organs 3-4 6.0 Changes which should be made to Present Arrangements to Increase Supply of Human Organs in the UK 4-6 7.0 Conclusion 6-7 8.0 References 8-9 9.0 Appendix A 10 10.0 Appendix B 11 1.0 Introduction The subject of organ sales has always remained a huge attraction for hot debate. The nature of this subject is considered highly controversial because it is associated with myriad ethical concerns. It is quite sad that sale of human organs, due to surrounding notoriety, is rarely discussed rationally. This essay seeks to explain how universally legalizing organ sales is the only answer to an increasingly stressful situation created by disastrous shortage in organ supply. However controversial such sales may be deemed by many, truth is that advantages offered by this outweigh all disadvantages put together. The following discussion will help to prove this argument by providing evidence about shrinking number of donors of organs like kidneys in the light of reputable research. Thoughts of proponents and opponents in context of development of a proper market for human organs in the UK will also be scrutinized. Final section will include some suggestions, supported by important macro-marketing concepts, regarding modifications required in the current arrangements made in the UK to enhance the rate of organ supply. 2.0 Sale of Human Organs- Why is there Controversy? Earth-shattering controversy, which has enveloped organ sales since the beginning of times, originates from a particular kind of reverence for the human body. To consider this body a biological machine with replaceable parts is a matter of shame for many. Even with advanced science and technology, it is considered a huge taboo also in many societies. The human body is thought of as a sacred temple and this idea reinforces various “beliefs and rituals to care for the body after death” (Petechuk 2006, p. 73). There are deeply ingrained boundaries on what can be done with a human body, the boundaries which are established by religion, society, and human psychology. Controversy also picks momentum when complications affecting kidney donors’ health are exaggerated due to inclusion of bias in collected data. But, this much stands true that prior permission of a person is must in all cases because long and painful wait for organ transplants does “not erase the rights of some to utilize their organs as they see fit” (Cherry 2005, p. 144). 3.0 There are Insufficient Kidney Donors to Meet a Huge Demand The number of kidney donors is low in the UK compared to Scandinavian countries according to medical research. It is claimed by data collected from UK Transplant during the period between 1994 and 2003 that there was a staggering 60.1% increase in the number of patients who were in dire need of kidney transplant and a 16.7% fall in the number of kidney donors (Canelo & Papalois 2010, p. 2). UK Transplant is the national authoritative body for organ donation and transplantation which has suggested that the population of donors has decreased in the country. The number of those patients who have to put up with excruciatingly painful dialysis throughout life has increased due to such shortage of donors. Though a modest increase is noticed in the rate of live-donor kidney transplants, still research identifies that there is a long way to go to create a balance between organ demand and supply. This is because the number of donors remains lower in the UK compared to the European countries which have a “higher percentage of live kidney donors” (Canelo & Papalois 2010, p. 2). Another research also provides evidence that the gap is rapidly increasing between people diagnosed of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) on the waiting list for transplant and the number of deceased donor allografts. Out of total 62,889 patients in dire need of kidney transplant in 2005 in the US, only 16004 transplants actually took place (Tan, Marcos & Shapiro p. 69). This suggests that awareness should be increased regarding organ sales to increase the dwindling number of organ donors. 4.0 There should be Development of a Market for Human Organs Proponents argue that organ sales should be legalized in the UK to prevent a large number of patients from dying of the long and painful wait for transplants. Many leading transplant surgeons like Professor Nadey Hakim report that sale of human organs cannot be emphasized enough because of potential value added by such measure to saving lives. Increased pressure is put over the government to legalize organ transplant markets. In order to discourage the black market in organs which is dramatically destructive, “a properly regulated market should be permitted” (Hakim cited in Smith 2011). Presence of a legalized market where people are allowed to sell their organs without any fear or hesitation can help them to make a more informed decision. Development of such a market can also help to find more suitable donors because lives of thousands of ESRD patients are put at stake when no suitable donor can be found in the required time slot. Such a market should be abundantly supported by the government because the rate of patients unable to get an organ is increasing by 8% every year. Such an increase is due to lack of official support to develop an organ sales market. This lack of support encourages black market operations due to which a new organ is sold every other hour in the UK (Campbell & Davison 2012). The number of people on waiting list for organ transplant exceeds 8000, “more than 500 of whom die each year before they obtain an organ” (Smith 2011). 5.0 There should be No Development of a Market for Human Organs Opponents of organ sales argue that claims to legalize the market for human organs are not persuasive. It is suggested that there are myriad good reasons to believe, some of which are based on past experience, that development of a legal market where purchase and sale of organs is officially backed up is more likely to push supply even further down than to increase it. For example, a social medicine professor from Columbia University argues that when the sale of blood was not allowed in the UK in contrast to the US where no such ban was imposed, “rates of donation were considerably higher than the U.S” (Rothman cited in Knox 2008). Also, creating such a market can cause many people to think that if there is such a place where they can buy an organ, why should they donate it? Another Harvard surgeon and senior adviser on transplantation claims that we do not need to create such a market because there are many places on earth where young kidneys are available at much cheaper rates. For example, even if a market for organ sales is legalized in the US, why would people consider waiting there when they have an option to go to Manila to buy a 20 year old kidney at a very cheap price? (Delmonico cited in Knox 2008). It is argued by a professor of ethics that there are other options to get cadaveric organs. Current systems work pretty well and can be improved without creating a government-supported market (Childress cited in Knox 2008). 6.0 Changes which should be made to Present Arrangements to Increase Supply of Human Organs in the UK Hunt and Vitell model (H-V model) is worth mentioning here which is a model of ethics introduced by marketing ethics experts and has special relevance to the subject of organ sales. Any market which exists for sale of body organs generates public controversy. But, it is claimed that any activity or behavior should be considered ethical “if it produces a greater balance of good over evil than any suitable alternative” (Hunt & Vitell 1986, p. 6). This suggests that if a legal market for organ sales translates into increase in supply of human organs in the UK or anywhere in the world, its development should be supported. “Allowing people the freedom to decide what to do with their bodies” (Price 2000, p. 395) does not translate into treating people instrumentally. The H-V model has practical application for any problem which is deemed controversial for having ethical content (Hunt & Vitell 2006, p. 2). Morgan and Hunt provide two theories separately to explain why consumers and firms enter into relationships with each other. First, in the commitment-trust relationship marketing theory, they propose that consumers or public enters into relational exchanges with firms when they are convinced that benefits derived by them from such exchanges will outweigh costs (Kleinaltenkamp & Ehret 2006, p. 76). If this view is held true, then firms or bodies involved in organ purchase and sales in the UK should make their consumers believe that their benefits will exceed the costs. Benefits in the form of partners who could be trusted and reduced risks associated with exchange like donation of organs should be ensured to consumers. Also, all such exchanges should be consistent with moral obligation (Kleinaltenkamp & Ehret 2006, pp. 75-76). The Resource-Advantage theory (R-A theory) of Hunt and Morgan is also helpful to assess what changes should be made to current arrangements to increase organ supply. This theory focuses on explaining why firms enter into relationships with consumers. It is implied that firms do so to gain competitive edge over other firms. It is about the struggle among firms for an increase in resources, which in this case, relate to human organs (see Appendix A). Such resources enable a firm to more effectively “produce market offerings that have vale for some market segment” (Kleinaltenkamp & Ehret 2006, p. 77). In this case, human organs are market offerings and consumers in dire need of organ transplants form the market segment. The R-A theory seeks to explain how market-based economies are far better than command economies (Hunt & Morgan 1997, p. 75). In light of this concept, there is a command economic system in the UK (see Appendix B) where proposals go to bureau for approval. This system translates into shortage of human organs. This system should be replaced by a market economy in which supply and demand determines the economic activity, which is sale of human organs. According to Crane and Matten Consumer Sovereignty model, consumers should be able to decide which products get sold and which should not be produced. This concept reflects “freedom and authority” (Hanekamp 2007, pp. 82-83). This ultimate freedom to make decisions makes them sovereign in an economy or a free market. Consumption should be active and production should be responsible. The lack of human organs for transplantation available to citizens of the UK is owing to a failure in the model of consumer sovereignty. Research also suggests that “to prohibit the sale of human organs is to compromise consumer sovereignty by a whole series of value judgments” (Blaug 1992, p. 126). A free market where consumers are sovereigns should ensure sufficient supply of organs if they are so badly needed. But, there is no such free market or consumer sovereignty within UK due to which such long waiting lists have to be endured by critically ill patients. This problem can only be solved by legalizing trade in body parts. Firms should ensure their customers that their organs will only be used to save life of another human being. In addition to saving a valuable life, selling an organ can also “relieve the financial burden of the donor family” (Block et al. 2000, p. 104). There should be a proper market for human organs in the UK because it would generate more jobs and more cash flow in the market system (Block et al. 2000, p. 105). 7.0 Conclusion Concluding, this much becomes clear from the above discussion that in present times of critical shortage of human organs like kidneys, this governmental strategy to discourage development of a market for human organs has more negative implications. General consensus is that there is a critically worrisome shortage of human organs around the globe presently. This critical shortage has generated infamously long waiting lists for organ transplants, which plays a negative role in saving lives. Organ sales do not form as staggeringly big issue in modern societies as they do in more conservative parts of the world. The moral authority of a market involved in buying and selling of human organs is questioned around the world just like in the UK. However, the controversy surrounding this authority should be put to rest if an individual willingly agrees to participate in transfer of organs. 8.0 References Blaug, M 1992, The Methodology of Economics: Or, How Economists Explain, 2nd edn, Cambridge University Press, UK. Block, W, Whitehead, R, Johnson, C, Davidson, M, White, A & Chandler, S 2000, ‘Human Organ Transplantation: Economic & Legal Issues’, QUINNIPIAC HEALTH LAW, vol. 3, no. 87, pp. 87-110. Campbell, D & Davison, N 2012, ‘Illegal kidney trade booms as new organ is ‘sold every hour’’, The Guardian, viewed 06 May 2014, Canelo, R & Papalois, V 2010, Living Related Transplantation, World Scientific, Singapore. Cherry, MJ 2005, Kidney for Sale by Owner: Human Organs, Transplantation, and the Market, Georgetown University Press, USA. Hanekamp, G 2007, Business Ethics of Innovation, Springer. Hunt, SD & Morgan, RM 1997, ‘Resource-Advantage Theory: A Snake Swallowing Its Tail or a General Theory of Competition?’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 61, pp. 74-82. Hunt, SD & Vitell, SJ 1986, ‘A General Theory of Marketing Ethics’, Journal of Macromarketing, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 5-16. Hunt, SD & Vitell, SJ 2006, ‘The General Theory of Marketing Ethics: A Revision and Three Questions’, Journal of Macromarketing, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 1-11. Kleinaltenkamp, M & Ehret, M 2006, Relationship Theory and Business Markets, Emerald Group Publishing. Knox, R 2008, ‘Should We Legalize the Market for Human Organs?’, NPR, viewed 06 May 2014, Price, D 2000, Legal and Ethical Aspects of Organ Transplantation, Cambridge University Press, UK. Smith, L 2011, ‘Sale of human organs should be legalised, say surgeons’, THE INDEPENDENT, viewed 06 May 2014, Petechuk, D 2006, Organ Transplantation, Greenwood Publishing Group, USA. Tan, HP, Marcos, A & Shapiro R 2013, Living Donor Transplantation, CRC Press, USA. 9.0 Appendix A Hunts, S 2011, ‘Sustainable marketing, equity, and economic growth: a resource-advantage, economic freedom approach’, Journal of Academic Marketing Science, vol. 39, pp. 7-20. 10.0 Appendix B Larimer, J 1994, ‘INFRASTRUCTURE’, viewed 07 May 2014, Read More