Techniques and Methodologies Design Suitable for an Area of Professional Practice - Coursework Example

ADVANCED RESEARCH TECHNIQUES Assignment Two Assignment Two: A Booklet 40 marks of total Briefing: Provide an information booklet for a specified academic area of applied research. The booklet is to be used by colleagues in your organisation who have an MBA or equivalent level of education. The booklet will provide guidance and explanation on a range of research techniques that could be employed in the specified research area. At least two named and distinctly different epistemological approaches must be considered. Marking Scheme: For each epistemological approach the booklet should identify: Which research questions might best be answered using each epistemological approach (20%) A brief description of the methods that might be employed using each epistemological approach (20%) A discussion of factors which will affect the achievement of validity in your environment using each approach (e.g. sample selection and size, data collection and analysis considerations, etc.) (40%) A critical summary weighing up the advantages and disadvantages of these epistemological and methodological approaches. (20%) CONTENTS Introduction Section 1 The Research Design Considerations Applied Philosophy Efforts to Improve Research Quality and Validity Ethical Considerations Research Planning SECTION 2 Research Questions and Techniques Research area and questions Research methods Quantitative method Qualitative method Mixed research method Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative methods Quantitative and Qualitative approach for risk management Advantages of Disadvantages of Quantitative research Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative research Simulation Software for Risk Management SECTION 3 The Research Process The Research Process Principles Steps Of The Research REFERENCES Citations INTRODUCTION What is Risk Within the information security realm, risk is defined as the probability that a threat agent (cause) will exploit a system vulnerability (weakness) to create a loss to the confidentiality, integrity and availability of an asset (Carroll,1996;459;'Security Risk",2005;6) Risk Management Before discussing risk management, we should know a bit about Risk Analysis & Risk assessment. Risk analysis and risk assessment are concepts that are interchangeable and they form the basis of risk management. It's an ongoing process where: Assets are identified and valued. Vulnerabilities associated with an asset are identified and their severity is assessed. Threats are identified and chances of their occurrence are assessed. The threat and vulnerability relation is examined which might result in the manifestation of any risk. Policies are used in accordance with the impact of this risk manifestation. Existing controls are defined and corrective actions are proposed so that the impact of any risk is reduced to the level that can be accepted for a particular environment. So Risk Management can be defined as a continuous process of planning, implementation of those plans , promoting awareness and monitoring of security measures to mitigate, transfer, eliminate or control to an acceptable level. Various objectives of the risk management process include: The aim of risk management is "reduce business exposure by balancing counter measures investment against risk"(Birch&McEVOY,1992;45) The purpose of risk management is "to minimise the expected loss"(Suh &Hun,2003:150). The goal of risk management is "select risk mitigation, risk transfer and risk recovery measures so as to optimise the performance of an organization"(Jacobson,2002;1) IMPORTANCE OF RISK MANAGEMENT It is easy to manage an organisation when all things are at its place, but during crucial times of risk management, the job becomes tough. Then comes the tough managerial Decision Making. Cooperation is required in such times from all the sectors of the company. Treating risks after evaluation is very important. At the same time, communication with all the internal and external public of the company is essential. Uncertainties and high level of risk are involved in all modern day technologies and products and hence a prior Risk Management Plan is a must for all companies. Risk Management Plan is a must for all companies. (Source: http://www.murdoch.edu.au/admin/policies/risk.html) The purpose of this booklet would is to provide a guide to any company's Risk Management Plan and Risk Analysis. The Booklet Outline The structure of the booklet is as follows: The Research Design Considerations: This includes the ontological and epistemological thinking, the ethical considerations and the research validity The Research Questions and techniques: The Quantitative , Qualitative and Mixed Research Methods for Risk Management. The advantages and disadvantages of the research methods. The Research process includes the research process principles and the steps of the research. SECTION 1 THE RESEARCH DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS This section explains the importance of choosing a design structure and an applied research philosophy to a Risk Management research. APPLIED PHILOSOPHY Research can be defined as seeking answers to certain questions in a systematic way.In the quest of seeking these answers,there comes into play research approaches : the most common approaches are epistemological and ontological. Both the words sound daunting, but they have simple meanings in the field of research. Epistemology can be defined as the "study of knowledge and justified belief" .When epistemology is considered as" the study of knowledge", it is concerned with questions like: what are the sources of knowledge what are the conditions of knowledge What are the structure and limits of knowledge. When it epistemology deals with ' justified belief", it asks questions like what makes beliefs justified Whether justification is external or internal to one's mind to sum it up, Epistemology deals with the creation ok knowledge and dissemination of knowledge. Ontology is the study of truth or the "study of being or existence". While, epistemology asks" what do you know' and ' how do you know", ontology asks" what is the nature of things you know" Both these research approaches when applied to research question, can either be positivist (by quantitative research method) or interpretative (by qualitative research method) While conducting a research on Risk Management, the kind of research approach depends on the researcher's preference and research aspects and the validities of knowledge. Efforts to Improve Research Quality and Validity "Any research can be affected by different kinds of factors which, while extraneous to the concerns of the research, can invalidate the findings" (Seliger & Shohamy 1989, 95).The primary responsibility of any good researcher should be controlling the factors that might hamper the validity of a research. INTERNAL VALIDITY as the name suggests occurs when something goes wrong internally within the study. For example, a data collection problem, or problems with research instruments or a design problem. "Findings can be said to be internally invalid because they may have been affected by factors other than those thought to have caused them, or because the interpretation of the data by the researcher is not clearly supportable" (Seliger & Shohamy 1989, 95) Important factors which might affect internal validity: Instrument/task sensitivity Subject variability Time given for the data collection or experimental treatment Size of subject population Maturation Attrition History Subject variability EXTERNAL VALIDITY "Findings can be said to be externally invalid because [they] cannot be extended or applied to contexts outside those in which the research took place" (Seliger & Shohamy 1989, 95). Important factors which might affect external validity: The effect of time Data collection methodology Descriptive explicitness of the independent variable Research environment effect Researcher effects Interaction of research and selection of subject Population characteristics of the subjects Ethical Considerations Ethical issues are always to be taken into consideration while undertaking a research.The qualitative method of research includes participant observation and also interaction with them, and it is quite obvious that ethical issues may arise. Miles and Huberman (1994) list several issues that researchers should consider while analysing data. Researchers are advised to be aware of these issues during the research is being conducted. Some of the issues involve the following: Informed consent (Do participants have full knowledge of what is involved) Risk and harm (Can the participants be hurt by the study) Honesty (Is the researcher honest in data presentation) Privacy and anonymity (Will the study invade too much into group behaviors) Advocacy and intervention (What should the researchers do if they witness harmful or illegal behavior from the participants) Apart from ethical issues concerning ethnography and participant observation,there also exists issues related to other sections: Issues with the integration and honesty with the organization which funds the research; the researcher cannot destroy or hide data from the concerned organisation Issues with the questionnaire Issues related to data collection Issues related to sampling and analysis Issues with plagiarism RESEARCH PLANNING Planning one's research is very important before beginning it, to reach the aim successfully . If proper planning is not done before hand, one might waste his or her time in irrelevant material and that results in delayed result and conclusions. Two very structured way of research planning would be THE YING YANG MAP and THE ROAD MAP. THE YING YANG MAP This map segregates the theoretical aspect and the practical aspect of research and also depicts how both the aspects are inter related. THE YING YANG MAP (SOURCE:http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/kbroad.php) THE ROAD MAP This map draws the metaphor of a journey through the road which shows how research is similar to a journey that begins from conceptualisation and the aim and ultimately the journey ends at the conclusion. The Road Map When the researcher has already decided on the research philosophy and approach, the methodologies of the Risk Management can be considered. SECTION 2 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND TECHNIQUES The validity factors of the applied methodologies and also the research approaches chosen would be considered. This includes the advantages and disadvantages of the different methodologies and the Risk management questions involved in the research. The purpose of the Risk management research , would be a research into identifying and analysing risk, and managing risk , via proper decision making and execution of the decision. To achieve expertise in Risk management for..,the research approach, application and the appropriate research questions are vital. Risk Management questions can be summarised through practical application as below in table. The research questions 1.How public sector organizations might be designed for failure free working 2.Which leadership behaviour or qualities are needed for effective Risk Management 3, What are the definition of risk and risk management 4.How important is risk analysis before risk management 5.What are the core parameters and success factors for managing risk 6.How important is risk taking to reap rewards and gain extraordinary performance 7. Whats the scope of risk taking 8. To what extent risks should be taken 9. what factors to be considered while decision making 10.what factors should determine the budget for risk management 11. what measures should be taken to be prepared for risk management 12.How important is decision making in a risk management plan 13.How to train employees to handle risks Research Methods There exists three major research methods; quantitative research, qualitative research, and mixed research . Here are the definitions of each: Quantitative research - It relies on the collection of data, which is quantitative. Qualitative research - It relies on the collection of data, which is qualitative. Mixed research - It involves the mixing of both qualitative and quantitative methods CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE AND MIXED METHODS http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec2.htm Quantitative Research Methods: Experimental and Non experimental Research Experimental Quantitative Research Experiment is a typical quantitative research method that aims to provide a better understanding of the relationship between a causal hypothesis and a specific phenomenon which represents either theoretical or practical interest for the researcher. True experimental study design or random experimental design is the preferred method in quantitative research, especially in evaluation studies for it is the best option to ensure as great amount of control as possible and thus allow close examination of causal relationship(Kaplan,2004) Three major features characterise the experimental design: Manipulation: The researcher manipulates at least some of the participants involved in the study; Control: The experimenter introduces one or more controls over the experimental situation. Randomisation: The researcher assigns participants to different groups randomly(Clark-Carter,2004) Non-experimental Quantitative Research Non-experimental research is required as there exists many independent variables, which cannot be manipulated for some reason or the other (e.g., for ethical reasons, for literal reasons and for practical reasons). Non-experimental research studies what naturally occurs or has occurred; and how variables are related to each other. It lacks manipulation of the independent variable. Steps in Non experimental Research Determine the research problem and hypotheses to be tested. Select the variables to be used in the study. Collect the data. Analyze the data. Interpret the results. While doing a quantitative analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics are used to summarise data and depict the tendencies of averages and variables. The following diagrams would help understand the descriptive and inferential statistics better. (SOURCE: http://cmapskm.ihmc.us/servlet/SBReadResourceServlet) DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS SOURCE: http://cmapskm.ihmc.us/servlet/SBReadResourceServlet) INFERENTIAL STATISTICS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Types of Qualitative Research Case study Throws light on a phenomenon by conducting an in-depth study of a particular case. The case can be an person, a group, or an organisation. Grounded theory Theory is developed inductively by a participant observer, from a corpus of data acquired by him. Phenomenology Describes experience as they present themselves to consciousness, without recourse to deduction, theory or assumptions from any other disciplines. Ethnography Generally, the ethnographer focuses on a community and deals with some socio cultural phenomenon. Historical Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events that may help to explain present events and anticipate future events.(Gay, 1996). Main Types of Qualitative Data Collection & Analysis "Those who are not familiar with qualitative methodology may be surprised by the sheer volume of data and the detailed level of analysis that results even when research is confined to a small number of subjects"(Myers,2002) There are three main methods of data collection are: INTERACTIVE INTERVIEWING The aim of the interview is to find out the participant's perception, hence their views should be unbiased. Interviews can also be a group interviews. The answers should preferably not be, YES or NO, as that makes details unachievable. The researcher should choose an environment that makes the participants comfortable. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION The researcher should monitor observation and record personal bias of the participant. The researcher himself should be very neutral and not have any prejudice while observing participant. FOCUS GROUP The focus group session is, indeed, an interview (Patton, 1990) not a discussion group, problem-solving session, or decision-making group. Comprises of both the elements of both interview and participant observation. Mixed Research Methods The Advantages of Mixed Research By using the fundamental principle of mixed research ,one can aim at achieving complementary strengths of both the methods and also weaknesses that are non overlapping. By using a metaphor for mixed research, we can understand it better: If one fish net is constructed out of many fish nets that have holes by just laying them on another. The new net will not be having any holes . The mix methods or approaches works in a same way. When mixed methods are used to focus on the same phenomenon and they provide the same result, "corroboration" is achieved which means one has greater evidence for the result. The research has both thematic and numeric presentation. A holistic approach is achieved Research Typology At A Glance (http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec2.htm) Comparisons of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Point of Comparisons Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Focus of research Quality (nature, essence) Quantity (how much, how many) Philosophical roots Phenomenology, symbolic interaction Positivism, logical empiricism Associated phrases Fieldwork, ethnographic, naturalistic, grounded, subjective Experimental, empirical, statistical Goal of investigation Understanding, description, discovery, hypothesis generating Prediction, control, description, confirmation, hypothesis testing Design characteristics Flexible, evolving, emergent Predetermined, structured Setting Natural, familiar Unfamiliar, artificial Sample Small, non-random, theoretical Large, random, representative Data collection Researcher as primary instrument, interviews, observations Inanimate instruments (scales, tests, surveys, questionnaires, computers) Mode of analysis Inductive (by researcher) Deductive (by statistical methods) Findings Comprehensive, holistic, expansive Precise, narrow, reductionist Merriam, S.B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 18. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE APPROACH FOR RISK MANAGEMENT The research area: It begins with risk identification, risk analysis and eventually Risk management. All three are interrelated. Hence Risk identification and Risk Analysis are parts of the RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN. To manage risk one needs to analyse risk; lets have a look at both the Quantitative Risk Analysis and Qualitative Risk Analysis. Quantitative Risk Analysis is a part of "Project Planning Phase". It numerically analyses the probability of risk and the aftermath of objectives of the project. (1) Quantitative Risk Analysis - Input Organizational Process Assets: Similar projects that are completed or prior studies by risk specialists and risk databases may be available from the company or the organization. Project Scope Statement Risk Management Plan: Risk Management Plan for Quantitative Risk Analysis includes planning Risk Management, activities to be done or steps to taken, planning budgets and categories of the risk, the RBS, and the" revised stakeholder's risk tolerance" Risk Register: Risk register for Quantitative Risk Analysis includes the list of identified risks, priority list of project risks, and categories of risks Project Management Plan (2) Quantitative Risk Analysis - Tools & Techniques Data Gathering and Representation Techniques: Interviewing: Interviewing helps to quantify the impact and probability of risks on project objectives . Probability distributions.: Uncertainty in values are represented by incessant probability distributions, such as durations of schedule activities and costs of project component.The result of a test or a possible scenario in a decision tree and other uncertain events can be represented by discrete distributions. Expert judgment: Experts either from the organization or outside validate data and techniques. Quantitative Risk Analysis and Modeling Techniques: Sensitivity analysis: It helps to determine the risks that have the most potential impact on the project. Expected monetary value analysis: EMV or Expected monetary value analysis calculates the average outcome when the future includes situations that may or may not occur. Decision tree analysis: Decision tree analysis consists of a decision tree diagram that depicts a situation which is under consideration, and the implications of the available choices and possible situations. Modeling and simulation: The uncertainties specified at a project level is translated into their potential impact on project objectives by a project simulation that uses a model (3) Quantitative Risk Analysis - Outputs Risk Register updates: Risk Register is again updated in Quantitative Risk Analysis. The risk register is very much a component of the project management plan. Updates include the following main components: Prioritized list of quantified risks Probabilistic project analysis : Forecast of schedule and cost results and confidence levels of achieving these. Probability of achieving time and cost objectives Trends in quantitative risk analysis results: Due t the repetition of the analysis, a trend may become apparent which would lead to conclusions that affect responses of risk Qualitative Risk Analysis Unlike Quantitative, Qualitative Process assesses the likelihood and impact of identified risks. This process prioritises risk in accordance with their effect on the project. Qualitative Risk Analysis is a part of "Project Planning Phase" too. While the input for both the methodology for Risk Management are the same, the tools and techniques differ completely. (1) Qualitative Risk Analysis - Input Organizational Process Assets: Similar projects that are completed or prior studies by risk specialists and risk databases may be available from the company or the organization. Project Scope Statement Risk Management Plan: Risk Management Plan: Risk Management Plan for Quantitative Risk Analysis includes planning Risk Management, activities to be done or steps to taken, planning budgets and categories of the risk, the RBS, and the" revised stakeholder's risk tolerance ". Risk Register: Risk register for Quantitative Risk Analysis includes the list of identified risks, priority list of project risks, and categories of risks Project Management Plan (2) Qualitative Risk Analysis - Tools & Techniques Risk probability and impact Assesment: Probability is the likelihood of the event taking place. Impact is the effect on project objectives , provided the risk occurs. Probability/Impact risk rating matrix Risk Data Quality Assessment: A qualitative risk analysis needs unbiased and accurate data Analysis of the risk data quality is a technique to assess the degree to which the data is useful for risk management.. Risk Categorization ) Risk Urgency Assessment: Risks that are knocking at the door and are more urgent would need immediate response. (3) Qualitative Risk Analysis - Output Risk Register updates: The risk register is initiated during the Risk Identification process. The information from Qualitative Risk Analysis is used to update the Risk Register and the updated risk register is a part of the project management plan. It is during the Risk Identification process, that the Risk Register is initiated. After the Risk Analysis comes the very important step of decision making at the managerial level, the diagram below is a pictorial represenatation of the decision making process. DECISION MAKING IN RISK MANAGEMNET SOURCE: http://cmapskm.ihmc.us/servlet/SBReadResourceServlet) ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES QUNATITATIVE ADVANTAGE 1.Provides room for objectivity and accuracy of results derived from numerical data 2. Replication of research is possible using standard means 3.Easily compared and analysed with studied which are similar 4.As Kruger(2003) confirms that" quantitative methods allow us to summarise vast sources of information and facilitate comparisons across categories over time." 5.Allows study in a broader way that involves a large number of subjects which enhances generalization of results. DISADVANTAGE 1.Can lead to 'structural' bias 2.Sometimes, it may procure dataset that is superficial and narrow 3.Limited results achieved as the results are numerical and not detailed human perception.It is not possible always to study the issue only by numbers 4.Can be" quite complex and require considerable investment for proper understanding and use"(Kruger,2003) Qualitative Advantage 1.Achieves greater level of depth and detail 2. Suitable for subjects that are sensitive and have to be dealt subtly like Risk management. 3.Open ness can be created between all the concerned parties and new theories can be generated. 4."It certainly seems reasonable to suggest that one may have a better understanding of a community member's situation by reading a descriptive passage than just looking at demographic statistics"(Kruger,2003) 5. Allows observation on unrevealed attitudes, and interrelationship. Disadvantage 1. Aggregation of data is different and hence making systematic comparisons is different. 2.Replication of research is difficult as there exists" lack of standardized procedures and structured design 3.Subjectivity of inquiry may lead to hindrances in establishing validity and reliability of information 4.Susceptibility to personal bias of the researcher 5. Due to in- depth and comprehensive gathering of data, the scope is limited. SIMULATION SOFTWARE FOR RISK MANAGEMENT (Monte Carlo Simulation Software) For Science, Engineering, and Financial Risk Analysis Simulation Analysis is a vital technique of operational research .In Risk management it plays a vital role. Monte Carlo Simulation software has made it possible to create models that simulate a real situation and help in predictions. It is useful for engineers, scientists, managers ,and investors among others to analyse risk. It is often used in business for risk analysis and decision analysis. Monte Carlo Software is also used by engineers and science communities for Uncertainty Analysis. Crystal Ball and @Risk are two popular and good quality programs. Risk Solver is a new addition to the list. SECTION 3 THE RESEARCH PROCESS In this section a summary of an applied research process approach for using Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed research, execution risk and managing risk are noted. The Research Process Principles This booklet has introduced the major research approaches of Risk Management and the application of two differing techniques. Personal vision and discipline: There needs to be a strong vision of what the researcher wants to achieve and to work towards the achievement of the aim proactively. Research Application : the research depends on its application within the organisation and should therefore cater to present and future research needs Relevance: The research topic must be relevant and useful to the organisation and society Ethics: While controlling Risk, the researchers should abide by local laws, and regulations. The research should be directed towards supporting the concerned organisation's policies. STEPS OF THE RESEARCH CONCEPTUALISATION: Includes research aim and questions and hypothesis OPERATINALISATION: Determination of variables Research strategy Research methods Indicators, units of analysis, time frame, resources, assumptions and biases, ethical consideration Secondary Research Primary Research Analysis Reporting process, findings, conclusions/recommendations At last, the deductions and conclusion should match the aim. Steps of the research REFERENCES Abell, P., (1990). 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