Biology of Human Ageing - Report Example

Biology of Human Ageing Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Name Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Course Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Instructor Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Date Introduction Both society and biology has taught us a lot of things that regard the normal life of a human being beginning from birth to death. What we obviously know is that every human being undergoes physical, psychological and social changes during their entire lifetime (Ropper et al 2005). These changes are normal and are sometimes inevitable. Of importance to this paper is a clear understanding of the ageing process including the changes that occur. First of all, it is important to appreciate that people do not age in the same way and at the same rate. In all cases, ageing comes from gradual loss that begins during adulthood even though it does not manifest itself until it becomes very extensive (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). A majority of the changes are not seen until a person attains the age of 70 years. The changes fall into three categories: social, physical and psychological. This paper will discuss on the most common sequelae of the ageing-related dysfunctions especially in the nervous system and the skeletal system and later focus on how some lifestyle changes will delay muscular related dysfunctions that are associated with ageing. a) The Nervous System The normal biology of ageing in human beings is associated with several changes in the nervous system. In the book, Adams and Victor’s principles of neurology by Ropper et al. (2005), the authors contend that ageing could also be referred to as senescence although the terms could be used interchangeably. There are both structural and functional dysfunctions that occur in the nervous system once ageing begins. The changes are mostly related to degenerative diseases that may result to multiple organ system failure. In relation to the nervous system, the sequelae of ageing related dysfunction mostly entails a lot of muscle loss, lack of strength and endurance, decreased levels of appetite, reduced balance and mobility as well as gradual weight loss (Ropper et al 2005). The effects of ageing on the nervous system are quite evident and taking note of the same is usually of paramount importance to any nursing practitioner or doctor. Even the actors portray old people as weak, feeble, idle, with trembling hands and quavering voices which are a clear indication of the effects that aging does impact of the nervous system (Ropper et al 2005). The neurological signs of ageing manifest certain abnormalities and ageing related dysfunctions. One major dysfunction occurs in the sensory system affecting most of the organs of sense. One common one is the neuroophthalmic signs which include a decrease in the size of the pupils (Ropper et al 2005). This in turn will lead to decreased activities in reaction to changes in the amounts or intensity of light. An ageing person could also experience farsightedness and will have increased sensitivity to very bright light (Ropper et al 2005). The ears which are also a part of the nervous system are usually affected when ageing process offsets in human beings. A person may develop a condition that is known as presbycusis which is characterized by progressive loss in the ability to hear (Rossi et al 2008). The person also becomes over-sensitive to very high tones because the number of hair cells in the corti of the ear is gradually diminishing (Rossi et al., 2008 p. 191). Moreover, there is a diminished sense of smell in most of the adults and that of taste in a few. Most physical changes that manifest include reduced levels of speed, slowed reactions to sensory activities, with the legs and the arms usually obtaining reduced muscular power. These changes are brought about by a progressive decrease in the number cells usually referred to as anterior horn cells (Ropper et al., 2005 p. 580). Another effect of ageing on the nervous system is that the vibratory sense is normally impaired or even completely lost in cases that are extreme. The impairment of the vibratory sense usually takes place in the toes and the ankles (Norris, Ellenberg & Dil'Man 2004). The impairment occurs because the thresholds for the cutaneous stimuli perception increase with more years which necessitates for refined methods of detecting them (Hof & Mobbs 2009). Lack of such mechanisms result in gradual loss of sensory fibres leading to reduced action in the sensory nerves and potential loss of the dorsal root ganglion cells. There are also other most obvious neurological effects of ageing in human beings such as weak posture and lack of stance and gait (Rossi et al 2008). They are the most conspicuous ageing related dysfunctions that manifest themselves during the entire ageing process. It begins in early adult life and is mostly as a result of the gradual decrease in neuromuscular control and the changes that occur in the joints and muscles (Rossi et al 2008). Older people therefore seem to be more cautious and slower in walking and carrying out tasks. Evidence has shown that a rapid deterioration of gait affect a relatively smaller population as compared to the other dysfunctions (Seeley, Stephens & Tate, 2004). It is associated with a disease of old age that degenerates the brain leading to some mental changes. Mostly, ageing has been associated with other common diseases like the Parkinson disease and dementia which occur as a result of the impacts of the ageing process on the nervous system (Seeley, Stephens & Tate, 2004). These two can result in a very sharp decline in memory and numerous cognitive functions (Rossi et al 2008). b) The Skeletal System The skeletal system is composed of joints, cartilage, tendons, ligaments and the many different bones that form up the framework of the human body. Its core functions are to support the body, to protect the internal organs and are necessary for locomotion and movement (Lynch 2011). With advancing age in human beings, the muscles that make up the skeleton undergo a gradual loss of fibres and cells which leads to relative reduction in their weight parallel to that of the brain. Loss of strength and weight in the skeletal muscle as predominantly associated with ageing is a condition referred to as sarcopenia (Ropper et al 2005). Sarcopenia is very prevalent in old people and the strength in the skeletal muscles is estimated to decrease at the rate of 1-2% every year after the age of 50 (Rossi et al., 2008 p. 182). It is usually a powerful risk in older people as it leads to loss of independence, frailty as well as physical disability and mortality as well. The problem is also greater in men than in women (Lynch 2011). Notably, bones are gradually lost in the sense that they become thinner and weaker. This process begins at an approximated age of 40 and steadily increases after the age of 45 years. Eventually the bones may even become disconnected from each other (Ropper et al 2005). Significantly, large amounts of bone loss at and advanced age may lead to bone fractures and very weak joints. For instance, loss of trabeculae increases the risk of fractures on the backbones, which is rather known as the vertebrae (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). Loss of the bone muscle may also lead to deformity, loss of height, stiffness as well as intense pain. The spinal cord could bent forward giving rise to a stooped posture (Seeley, Stephens & Tate, 2004 p. 189). In other instances, it also leads to loss of teeth. Nevertheless, ageing could have other very significant effects on the skeletal muscles. One very common condition in women aged between 40-45 years is what is termed as osteoporosis. This condition occurs from loss of calcium and other minerals from the bone matrix (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). In the male species, it usually begins after the age of 60 years. Those at risk of suffering from osteoporosis during their late years are females who have a history of smoking and drinking and athletes who do not menstruate because of lack of body fat (Ropper et al 2005). Moreover, people who are allergic to milk and have very low intake of calcium are prone to suffer from this old age dysfunction. There is also decreased production of collagen which is supposed to give the bones tensile and muscular strength (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). It is then accompanied by reduced levels of the growth hormone. This makes the bones very brittle and very fragile thus making them very susceptible to fractures and dislocation (Rossi et al 2008). Sarcopenia is a condition associated with decreased physical activity, lack or loss of appetite, loss of smell and critically low levels of growth hormones (Ropper et al., 2005 p. 585) as earlier mentioned. Lost muscles are replaced by endomysal connective tissues and fats but are not as strong and as supportive as the original bone as they are generally thinner than normal. This also reduces the potential and the working capacity of the motor nerves and the sensory nerves leading to incapacitation and wasting. The changed are usually more evident in the legs than in any other part of the body (Ropper et al., 2005 p. 585). Rheumatism and arthritis are also very prevalent age-related disorders that commonly manifest in human the elderly people (Hof & Mobbs 2009). Just but to wind up this first part, it has been observed quite repeatedly that the biology of ageing is associated with a very large number of changes. These are known to affect almost every part of the human body (Hof & Mobbs 2009). The discussion above has focused on the nervous system and the skeletal system with observation that ageing brings very profound changes that could be accompanied by ageing related dysfunctions such as dementia and the Parkinson disease. The next part looks at how some lifestyle changes may delay the onset of ageing related dysfunctions and the appearance of the diseases. Lifestyle Changes that may Delay the Onset of Ageing- Related Dysfunctions and Appearance of the Disease The muscular system is a very strong part of the human body. This element is also essential for the support and locomotive roles that it plays. Ageing comes with deterioration in the performance and the health status of the muscular/skeletal system as discussed above. Just but a recapture, old age is normally associated with social, physical and psychological changes. Physical changes affect the physical body both internally and externally (Norris, Ellenberg & Dil'Man 2004). One of the affected systems in the body is the muscular tissues. It undergoes progressive and gradual decline in functional ability and strength. However, there are quite a number of lifestyle and behavioural changes that could be employed in order to delay the onset of such dysfunctions. For instance, osteoporosis, a condition that is associated with weak bones during the ageing process could be prevented in a number of ways. Its prevention lies primarily on healthy lifestyle habits (Ropper et al 2005). These may include practices like adequate intake of calcium and vitamins. This will give one strong and healthy bones. Another lifestyle change that may prevent ageing-related dysfunctions of the muscular system is exercise (Ropper et al 2005). It is very essential in slowing down the rate at which osteoporosis may advance. For instance, it has been shown that weight bearing during exercise applies a lot of tension to bones and muscles which increases the density of the bones especially in young people (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). This prevents the bones from rapidly wearing out in the course of age advancement process. Others may include less consumption of alcohol and reduced cigarette smoking. In addition, limited consumption of caffeine is recommended because it may reduce the absorption of calcium (Ropper et al 2005). It is also worth noting that the spine degenerates a great deal during the ageing process (Leventhal et al 2001 in Aminnof 2001). The spinal cord is the bone that gives the body a straight posture, good balance and gait. The risk of the spine to fracture normally increases with age. Just like eyesight, smell and taste may diminish with time, so does the spinal cord. Good and healthy eating habits may delay the onset of the symptoms of a degenerating spine such as spinal fracture, stiffness, decreased motion in the joints, discomfort and non-flexibility (Ropper et al 2005). To sum it all up, there stands a very big relationship between enough exercise, good nutritional diet, healthy living habits and good health during old age. Many people who take preventive measures continue to be strong and healthy even during their years of late adulthood (Leventhal et al 2001 in Aminnof 2001). Even nutritionists have noted that many of the old people’s problems associated with weak and fragile muscular system has a lot to do with poor eating habits and lack of exercise in their prime years (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). For a good diet, mineral supplements and vitamins will alleviate most of these problems during their prime years (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). Some measures could also be adopted even at old age to promote the wellness of the elderly and delay the onset and appearance of the diseases (Rossi et al 2008). For instance, sleep is advised by an average of seven to eight hours a day in order to reduce the levels of stress which can help improve their mental health (Ropper et al 2005). Other practices and lifestyle changes that are recommended include habits like not skipping breakfast, weight check and control, frequent exercise and other activities that will improve the general health of the individual (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). Conclusion In light of the discussion above, it comes out quite evidently that the biology of human ageing process is a stage that comes with many complications. For instance, with advancing age, there is tendency to undergo a vast majority of physical changes in a negative way. This occurs mainly because most organ systems in the body degenerate leading to a failure in the physical functioning of the body (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). The nervous system and the skeletal systems are no exception. They work less efficiently causing a lot of inconveniences as discussed above. It has also been repeatedly observed that age is a very crucial prognostic factor as it contributes to a large number of human diseases especially during old age (Ropper et al., 2005). Such diseases are dementia, Parkinson disease, arthritis and rheumatism. Major changes will therefore occur as a result of ageing in many human beings. Nonetheless, most problems could also be alleviated by adhering to healthy eating habits, enough exercise and avoidance of stress even from early years (Lynch 2011). It is thus observed that most of the associated diseases can be controlled and prevented. This will help us in maintaining a very healthy and productive elderly population. References Aminoff, M. J. (2001). Neurology and general medicine. New York, Churchill Livingstone.pp. 573-613 Hof, P. R., & Mobbs, C. V. (2009). Handbook of the neuroscience of aging. Amsterdam, Elsevier/Academic Press.pp.45-7 Lynch, G. S. (2011). Sarcopenia- age-related muscle wasting and weakness mechanisms and treatments. Dordrecht, Springer Science+Business Media B.V http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=646296. Norris, A. H., Ellenberg, M., & DilʹMan, V. M. (2007). The Central nervous system & aging. New York, MSS Information Corp.pp. 33-78 Ropper, A. H., Adams, R. D., Victor, M., Brown, R. H., & Victor, M. (2005). Adams and Victor's principles of neurology. New York, McGraw-Hill Medical Pub. Division.pp. 579-580 Rossi, P., Marzani, B., Giardina, S., Negro, M., & Marzatico, F. (2010). Human Skeletal Muscle Aging and the Oxidative System: Cellular Events. Current Aging Science. (1) pp. 182-191. Tate, P., & Seeley, R. R. (2009). Seeley's principles of anatomy & physiology. Dubuque, IA, McGraw-Hill.pp.166-196 Read More

Most physical changes that manifest include reduced levels of speed, slowed reactions to sensory activities, with the legs and the arms usually obtaining reduced muscular power. These changes are brought about by a progressive decrease in the number cells usually referred to as anterior horn cells (Ropper et al., 2005 p. 580). Another effect of ageing on the nervous system is that the vibratory sense is normally impaired or even completely lost in cases that are extreme. The impairment of the vibratory sense usually takes place in the toes and the ankles (Norris, Ellenberg & Dil'Man 2004).

The impairment occurs because the thresholds for the cutaneous stimuli perception increase with more years which necessitates for refined methods of detecting them (Hof & Mobbs 2009). Lack of such mechanisms result in gradual loss of sensory fibres leading to reduced action in the sensory nerves and potential loss of the dorsal root ganglion cells. There are also other most obvious neurological effects of ageing in human beings such as weak posture and lack of stance and gait (Rossi et al 2008).

They are the most conspicuous ageing related dysfunctions that manifest themselves during the entire ageing process. It begins in early adult life and is mostly as a result of the gradual decrease in neuromuscular control and the changes that occur in the joints and muscles (Rossi et al 2008). Older people therefore seem to be more cautious and slower in walking and carrying out tasks. Evidence has shown that a rapid deterioration of gait affect a relatively smaller population as compared to the other dysfunctions (Seeley, Stephens & Tate, 2004).

It is associated with a disease of old age that degenerates the brain leading to some mental changes. Mostly, ageing has been associated with other common diseases like the Parkinson disease and dementia which occur as a result of the impacts of the ageing process on the nervous system (Seeley, Stephens & Tate, 2004). These two can result in a very sharp decline in memory and numerous cognitive functions (Rossi et al 2008). b) The Skeletal System The skeletal system is composed of joints, cartilage, tendons, ligaments and the many different bones that form up the framework of the human body.

Its core functions are to support the body, to protect the internal organs and are necessary for locomotion and movement (Lynch 2011). With advancing age in human beings, the muscles that make up the skeleton undergo a gradual loss of fibres and cells which leads to relative reduction in their weight parallel to that of the brain. Loss of strength and weight in the skeletal muscle as predominantly associated with ageing is a condition referred to as sarcopenia (Ropper et al 2005). Sarcopenia is very prevalent in old people and the strength in the skeletal muscles is estimated to decrease at the rate of 1-2% every year after the age of 50 (Rossi et al., 2008 p. 182).

It is usually a powerful risk in older people as it leads to loss of independence, frailty as well as physical disability and mortality as well. The problem is also greater in men than in women (Lynch 2011). Notably, bones are gradually lost in the sense that they become thinner and weaker. This process begins at an approximated age of 40 and steadily increases after the age of 45 years. Eventually the bones may even become disconnected from each other (Ropper et al 2005). Significantly, large amounts of bone loss at and advanced age may lead to bone fractures and very weak joints.

For instance, loss of trabeculae increases the risk of fractures on the backbones, which is rather known as the vertebrae (Seeley, Stephens & Tate 2004). Loss of the bone muscle may also lead to deformity, loss of height, stiffness as well as intense pain. The spinal cord could bent forward giving rise to a stooped posture (Seeley, Stephens & Tate, 2004 p. 189). In other instances, it also leads to loss of teeth. Nevertheless, ageing could have other very significant effects on the skeletal muscles.

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