Genetic Engineering - Essay Example

Abstract Genetic engineering is an advanced technology that is currently embraced (with different success) all over the world. Hence, this paper discusses the application of genetic engineering in the current world issues including application to plants and animals bringing into consideration economic and ethical issues. Generally, genetic engineering may be termed as the techniques used to replicate, identify, modify and transfer genes between animals or plants (Armstrong and Botzler 314). Even though there are new technical advancement and high expectations, it requires thorough knowledge, and is faced with problems associated with technology, economy and ethics. Additionally, the paper discusses Frankenstein metaphor in terms of genetic engineering (Gelder 158; Wolpert 166). Technology is changing at a faster rate and many scientists are trying different means to satisfy the requirements of humans. Many projects and researches have been carried out with different rate of success. However, the research that is mostly debated on is the idea of genetic engineering (Gelder 157). Thus, the aim of this paper is to discuss the impacts of genetic engineering and Human Genome Project bringing into consideration its influence in terms of ethics and economy, and discussing the benefits and dangers that this initiative posses. An example of complications that may be associated with genetic engineering is the Frankenstein metaphor (Gelder 158). This metaphor is based on a creature commonly referred to as monster illustrated in Mary Shelley’s novel (Gelder 158). Some characteristics of the feature include the lack of identity and human sense of self, and without a name because of its lack of parents. Shelley depicts the creature as emotional and sensitive with its main aim is to share his life with creates like himself (Gelder 158). Nevertheless, when the creature tried to integrate into the society and community, all people shunned him. Thus, this feeling of neglect or abandonment compels the creature to seek revenge against the creator (Wolpert 166). From this creature, it exemplifies the risks that are associated with Human Genome Project that is trying to clone a human. There are chances that the experiment can go awry and may result in the creation of a creature that resembles the monster. Due to complications associated with the experiment the characteristics of the creature, which includes lack of parents, sense of self and identity can make the creature to turn against humans and the consequences may be disastrous (Gelder 159). This illustrates ethical issues that surround genetic research. Genetic research is a topic that as been faced by a number of ethical and moral debates. Even though the use of genetic research is beneficial in increasing amount of foods and providing appropriate medical assistance, there are opponents who are against gene research (Armstrong and Botzler 313). Ethical debates on the issue of human genetic research have been there for decades and it has been linked to debates on abortion and reproductive technologies (Cummings 96). Least debate is seen in the field of altering individual’s somatic cells to treat diseases. However, many questions have not been answered on the safety and effectiveness of gene therapy. Even though few people oppose the idea of gene alteration for the purpose of preventing or treatment of serious illness, some predict in the future, it will be difficult to define treatment of foetus that have undergone genetic therapy (Dyson and Harris 230). Moreover, individuals may use genetic research and especially genetic predispositions e.g. obesity, shortness or below average intelligence in determining when foetus ‘requires’ genetic therapy that may result in either gene alteration or abortion (Dyson and Harris 230). For those parents who are able to afford such treatments may decide to choose specific modification to their normal foetuses’ genes to have certain features that they view desirable such as increase of intelligence (Dyson, 20). Moreover, other proponents of genetic research view that it is unethical to carry out gene alteration to prevent minor handicap or even enhancing condition of a normal offspring (Wolpert 167). Others (Wueste, 97) feel that the gene research will be likened to parents’ purchasing first-class schooling and medical facilities for their children. The issue of gene research becomes more severe when it comes to alteration of germline genes e.g. genes that are in the sex cells (sperm and egg), which are usually passed to the offspring (Wolpert 166). Even for those people who view that there is no ethical issue when it comes to the alteration of somatic cells (these are those genes that are not inheritable) say that it is not acceptable when it comes to germline genes; germline genes are the genes that are inheritable (Dyson and Harris 231). Alteration of the germline genes will affect the individual and humanity, and may even change the meaning of human (Nicholl 26). Conversely, proponents of altering germline genes beliefs that it is important for people to control their own evolution (Nicholl 26).They (proponents) argue that alteration of germline genes could eradicate deadly inheritable diseases and the chances of thrilling improvements in human beings’ powers, mental and physical health (Nicholl 26). Moreover, genetic research may lead to cloning or creation of new individuals (Herring 83). For example, it is possible to extrapolate the ideal of scientists at Roslin Institute in Scotland when they were able to clone a sheep – Dolly from a ewe cells (Herring 83; Fukuyama 85). Hence, human cloning may pose extensive ethical complications especially in the view of relationships. Cloning may result in confusion of family relationships and some people may see cloned individuals as products rather than humans (Fukuyama 86). Nevertheless, supporters of cloning argue that cloning with help infertile couples to have their own offspring; they attribute that this new offspring will be taken like identical twins (Herring 96). On the idea of human definition and privileges, humans share various characteristics with primates (Wueste 66). Scientists can create a being that possess the abilities and characteristics of humans such as reasoning and speaking but resembles a chimp or dog, thus an ethical question that may be raised is whether this new being as the same protection and rights as those of human being (Wueste 66)? Thus, the definition of human beings can be viewed from two perspectives that are either expansive; incorporates cloned humans or restrictive; does not incorporate humans (McGee 57). Such issues have been left for institutions and courts to determine extend or provisions of genetic discrimination. Religious institution and secular fraternity view the idea of genetic research as against the will of God (or creator) (McGee 58). Most religious books quote that God created man from his own image and thus nobody has the right to create his own image (McGee 58). However, the proponents of genetic research argue that these beliefs and ideologies are based on interpretation of individuals and thus since the will of Creator is to create, humanity has free will to create (Gelder 158), which may include the capability to create technologies and cloned individuals. In the field of economy or business, genetic research is undoubtedly have a major influence when it is utilized and integrated in daily activities (Cummings 95). Genetic engineering poses various repercussions especially in food and production industries. In the food industry, the use of genetic engineering has resulted in claims that it will alleviate world hunger (Cummings 95). Moreover, mass-producing of foods and marketing them appropriately will make the cost of obtaining the nutritious food cheaper in large quantities. This will result in improvement of public health and thus contributes positively towards the entire economy (Nicholl 34). Nevertheless, these negates common trade between certain blocks e.g. EU (European Union) because introduction of genetically engineered foods will successfully feed the citizens thus obliterating the requirements of trade between countries. Moreover, third world countries usually rely on the imported produce. Infiltration of engineered foods may either eradicate hunger; by increase of agricultural produce or cause demise to the already poverty-stricken communities; due to complications associated with genetic engineered foods e.g. mutations (Nicholl 16). Thus, trading normality will collapse because the value of produce will likely become obsolete (Cummings 95). In the case of cloning, some nations or individuals may utilise these benefits for military purposes (Fukuyama 87). This elaborates the redundant nature of men in power (in many countries people who are defeated in elections may not accept defeat and they want to stay forever in power) and violence may erupt because of such disputes (Cummings 98). Thus, it may result in constant wars or result of chaos due to irritation, fear, loss and hunger. This will result in disruption of the economy and communities involved (Cummings 99). Even though cloning may provide means of improving security, which translates into better economy, measures should be in place to prevent the technology from being used against citizens or used irrationally. Utilisation of genetic engineering has been a benefit to both the animals and plants. In the case of humans, especially in the successful cloning of mammals and the Human Genome Project, many scientists are looking for appropriate means that will improve living standards of humans and animals (Wolpert 169). These strategies and accomplishment have provided a means of understanding DNA and numerous ways of improving human life (Gelder 159). A major promising benefit of the engineering is the idea of gene therapy. Gene therapy may be defined as the medical treatment in which disease is treated through replacing or repairing the defective genes or introduction of therapeutic genes that will enable fighting the disease (Herring 34). Numerous diseases have been treated by the use of this strategy, which include heart and autoimmune diseases (Herring 34). Other diseases that are associated with defective gene are ALS (Lou Gehrig’s disease), Huntington’s disease and cystic fibrosis (Wolpert 166). Thus, advancement in genetic engineering may result in development of cure that can be used to correct the gene anomalies, performance of genetic surgery or modify the defective gene (Wolpert 166). This means that there is hope that certain genetic diseases may be eliminated and there may be appropriate gene therapy that can be used to treat non-genetic diseases. Presence of genetic technology has resulted in many pregnant parents seeking foetuses screening services that can be used to detect genetic defects (Herring 34; Wolpert 166). Obtaining information from these services may provide means in which the parents and physicians develop strategies to concur or prevent adverse complications. Additionally, the use of gene therapy will treat complications if they are found during screening process (Herring 35). Pharmaceutical companies have benefit from innovations of genetic engineering through production of superior products. Some pharmaceuticals are obtaining drugs from cloning of certain genes (Cummings 99). Examples are the human growth hormone obtained from cadavers; cadavers are human dead bodies that are dissected, bio-engineered insulin; previously obtained from cows and sheep, blood clotting factors and bio-engineered hormones (Herring 33). This illustrates that most ailments and genetic complications may soon be utilised in health care institutions. The agriculture industry have witnessed the importance of genetic engineering, an example is GMO (Genetically Modified Organisms) (Arencibia 3). Genetic engineering has helped in increase of crop productivity through the introduction of drought resistance groups and disease resistant. Moreover, seeds that are produced are resistant to pest and diseases (Arencibia 4). Other benefits of genetic engineering are improvement in food processing, improved nutritional value, and environmental concerns (Arencibia 4). Conversely, where there are benefits, risks are inherent. Numerous dangers are posed by the use of genetic engineering e.g. imprecise technology. In most instances, a genetic engineer moves the genes from one organism to another and sometimes the gene disserted precisely but insertion of DNA may be disastrous since it is usually inserted in a random way (Arencibia 3). Hence, such complications may result in disruption of some gene functioning, which may be essential to that organism. Moreover, side effects are inherent since the scientists have not fully understood living systems and thus genetic engineering may result in mutations (Arencibia 4). Mutations may occur or even cause widespread crop failure because genetic engineers may patent their findings due to influence of profiting (Gelder 158). Thus, when a farmer plants the seeds that originate from patented products, the crops usually result in identical genetic structure. Therefore, when a virus, fungi, pest or bacteria develop it may attack the entire plantation through pollination (Gelder 160). Moreover, there are chances of food supply been threatened due to pollination; the transgenic plants can pollinate with natural/ genetically occurring plants resulting into crops contamination (Gelder 158). The use of genetic engineering may result in numerous health hazards. This is because there is no long-term safety testing and can result in the introduction of toxins that are likely to cause mutations (Dyson 79). Genetic engineering can result in allergic reactions and this can decrease the nutritional value of genetically engineered foods (Dyson 80). Antibiotic resistant bacteria are usually include in marking the genetically engineered cells and thus theoretically possess genes that may cause adverse side effects when the plants mature (Dyson 79). In the perspective of environment, there are changes that the environment will be degraded at a faster rate (Cummings 120). For example, since the engineered products can be friendly to plants, farmers will increase the use of herbicides and pesticides, and may result in ecology damage (Arencibia 4). Thus, presence of genetic engineered products poses a major risk to the society especially on the impacts associated with engineered chemicals (Cummings 121). Generally, scientists have maximised their capabilities in exploring experimental and researches towards ensuring that humanity is preserved (Armstrong and Botzler 315). Genetic engineering and especially the Human Genome Project attempt to look for alternatives and means in which humans can improve their lives in terms of health (Gelder 158). However, the issue of genetic research has raised many ethical issues including correcting gene predispositions, alteration of germline genes, cloning of individuals. However, treatment of genetic complexities, increase of food, alleviating hunger and improvement in pharmaceuticals are some potential benefits of genetic engineering. Nevertheless, some risks that are posed by such technology is influencing negatively in production of food e.g. diseases, environmental degradation and health consequences e.g. presence of toxins (Gelder 158). Even though, numerous threats are associated with genetic engineering, institutions and organisations should set rules and regulations that will ensure that humans are not negatively affected by these numerous threats. References Armstrong, S. and Botzler, R., 2003. The Animal Ethics Reader. London: Routledge Publishers. Arencibia, A., 2000. Plant Genetic Engineering. New York: Elsevier Publishers. Cummings, C., 2008. Uncertain Peril. Beacon Publishers. Dyson, A. and Harris, J., 1994. Ethics and Biotechnology. London: Routledge Publishers. Dyson, F., 2004. Infinite in All Directions. New York: Perennial Publishers. Gelder, K., 2000. The Horror Reader. London: Routledge Publishers. Herring, M., 2006. Genetic Engineering. New York: Greenwood Publishers. Fukuyama, F., 2003. Our Posthuman Future. New York: Picador Publishers. McGee, G., The Perfect Baby, 2nd Ed. London: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. Nicholl, D., (2002). An Introduction to Genetic Engineering, 2nd Ed. London: Cambridge University Press. Wolpert, L., 2000. Moral and Immoral Science’ in The Unnatural Nature of Science. Harvard University Press, pp. 151 – 171 Wueste, D. 1994. Professional Ethics and Social Responsibility. London: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. Read More

Genetic research is a topic that as been faced by a number of ethical and moral debates. Even though the use of genetic research is beneficial in increasing amount of foods and providing appropriate medical assistance, there are opponents who are against gene research (Armstrong and Botzler 313). Ethical debates on the issue of human genetic research have been there for decades and it has been linked to debates on abortion and reproductive technologies (Cummings 96). Least debate is seen in the field of altering individual’s somatic cells to treat diseases.

However, many questions have not been answered on the safety and effectiveness of gene therapy. Even though few people oppose the idea of gene alteration for the purpose of preventing or treatment of serious illness, some predict in the future, it will be difficult to define treatment of foetus that have undergone genetic therapy (Dyson and Harris 230). Moreover, individuals may use genetic research and especially genetic predispositions e.g. obesity, shortness or below average intelligence in determining when foetus ‘requires’ genetic therapy that may result in either gene alteration or abortion (Dyson and Harris 230).

For those parents who are able to afford such treatments may decide to choose specific modification to their normal foetuses’ genes to have certain features that they view desirable such as increase of intelligence (Dyson, 20). Moreover, other proponents of genetic research view that it is unethical to carry out gene alteration to prevent minor handicap or even enhancing condition of a normal offspring (Wolpert 167). Others (Wueste, 97) feel that the gene research will be likened to parents’ purchasing first-class schooling and medical facilities for their children.

The issue of gene research becomes more severe when it comes to alteration of germline genes e.g. genes that are in the sex cells (sperm and egg), which are usually passed to the offspring (Wolpert 166). Even for those people who view that there is no ethical issue when it comes to the alteration of somatic cells (these are those genes that are not inheritable) say that it is not acceptable when it comes to germline genes; germline genes are the genes that are inheritable (Dyson and Harris 231).

Alteration of the germline genes will affect the individual and humanity, and may even change the meaning of human (Nicholl 26). Conversely, proponents of altering germline genes beliefs that it is important for people to control their own evolution (Nicholl 26).They (proponents) argue that alteration of germline genes could eradicate deadly inheritable diseases and the chances of thrilling improvements in human beings’ powers, mental and physical health (Nicholl 26). Moreover, genetic research may lead to cloning or creation of new individuals (Herring 83).

For example, it is possible to extrapolate the ideal of scientists at Roslin Institute in Scotland when they were able to clone a sheep – Dolly from a ewe cells (Herring 83; Fukuyama 85). Hence, human cloning may pose extensive ethical complications especially in the view of relationships. Cloning may result in confusion of family relationships and some people may see cloned individuals as products rather than humans (Fukuyama 86). Nevertheless, supporters of cloning argue that cloning with help infertile couples to have their own offspring; they attribute that this new offspring will be taken like identical twins (Herring 96).

On the idea of human definition and privileges, humans share various characteristics with primates (Wueste 66). Scientists can create a being that possess the abilities and characteristics of humans such as reasoning and speaking but resembles a chimp or dog, thus an ethical question that may be raised is whether this new being as the same protection and rights as those of human being (Wueste 66)? Thus, the definition of human beings can be viewed from two perspectives that are either expansive; incorporates cloned humans or restrictive; does not incorporate humans (McGee 57).

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