Applications and Ethics of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology - Term Paper Example

Introduction Microorganisms being very microscopic organism, they have an important role to play in the biosphere. Their natural endowment, which includes their size and where they occur, suits them perfectly to fit in the important roles which are discussed in the next section. Their sensitivity to different changes that occur within their environs has been very beneficial to some of the uses of these microorganisms. In addition to this, microorganisms are many, taking different forms from bacterial to fugal and algae among others. They reproduce at a very high rate and throughout all the time, they have been known to be in terms of billions wherever they exist. The modern biotechnology revolves around the knowledge of microorganism. These microorganisms define these technologies and for this purpose, this paper will handle the three broad areas that make use of them mainly at the molecular level. Genetically modified plants and animals will be discussed and the gene therapy. Still there is a lot to be discovered in the microorganism field and hence it is a wide area that is attracting more researchers and academicians. Uses of Microorganism Microorganisms have been used successfully in fixing and regulation of the atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen is a very important gas that forms a large composition of air. The nitrogen gas finds use in the protein synthesis, food canning industries, as a refrigerant, and in manufacture of the electric bulbs (Inslee J. et al p.157). This gas is also used in providing an inert environment in petroleum or chemical sectors and is a main component in the famous Haber process. The role of Rhizobium sp. In the nitrogen cycle hence forms a fundamental importance in balancing the forces of nature as it takes nitrogen from the air and converts it to a form very convenient for plant growth (Barea J., Pozo M., Azcon R., Azcon-Aguilar C. p. 78). Not only nitrogen is recycled here but also oxygen and carbon dioxide is circulated by these organisms and hence their presence in the atmosphere is incredibly important for human survival. Food industries also make use of the microorganisms in their production process. It is used in brewing and wine making whereby ethanol is produced. Through a process known as fermentation, variety in dairy product production which includes cheese and yogurt has been achievable. In all these processes they have been successful by help of the microorganisms that catalyze the process by slowing down the decomposition. The dairy industry particularly makes effective use of lactobacillus in the production of its delicacies. Mushrooms, which are ideally fungi in nature, are directly used as food in most parts of the world and in this manner this microorganisms can take the position of foods. Biotechnology has incredibly made use of microorganisms in its advancements. Microorganisms through biotechnology balance many forms (Gillen, Alan L. p.10). Genetic engineering owes its success to efficient use of microbes in its processes. Besides the energy sector, antibiotic production is also one of the key areas that have benefited from this technology. The proteins which are found in most of the pharmacological have been produced using this technology. Many diseases which are preventable and curable using the microbiologically developed antibiotics that include vaccines have reduced the deaths which before had been eminent to the even developed societies. They take different forms i.e. viral fungal bacterial etc. their use has improved the war against deadlier diseases like influenza, HIV, or flu for the case of Viral vaccines. Foot and mouth, which used to be a leading killer disease some years back, it is now very preventable using the genetic engineering technology. Similar to this is the hepatitis B which is also preventable. Microorganisms have been used successfully in the flavor industries. They have been used in flavoring of the ice cream and candy. In addition to this, preservation has been achieved especially for blood, ointment or cosmetics. Lactic acid has found use a food preservative. The sewerage systems have also benefitted from the use of microorganisms. These systems are biologically treated in a process known as the bioaugmentation. The industrial wastes follow the same suit before they are effluent. This ensures that the environment which people live in is safe from the chemicals that have dominated the manufacturing industry and the protection of the aquatic life is facilitated as the effluent being sent to the rivers and oceans or lakes is safe. This in return also minimizes the effects of the global warming and boosts the ideologies of safe waste disposal management. Human digestive system is a beneficiary of the microorganisms (O’Hara A, Shanahan F. pp. 688-93). The carbohydrates which have been indigestible are dealt with by the folic acid and biotin vitamins. These vitamins are synthesized by the digestive microorganisms. As a result, the digestive system is kept successful implying that the body receives ingredients which are thoroughly processed to fineness. This goes further into ensuring the body is healthy. Genetically Modified Animals The world today has been taken up by technology in every part of the sector. For that simple reason, even the animal industry has not been an exception. The prime reason that has seen this trend take course is the out stretched demand for research work. Also, thirsty for quality and impatient of the human character has also been contributing factors into this trend. Take for example a farmer who rears broilers. The demand for broilers exceeds the supply and hence there is an inevitable need to accelerate the supply in whatever way possible. For this cause, activities of genetically modified animals gain validity. It is important to emphasize here once again that a leading importance of genetically modified animals lies in the research developments (Takahashi N and Smithies O p. 136.) In these research centers, implantations of genes are impacted in another animal and investigations of whatever phenomenon carried out. What is a Genetically Modified Animal? Basically, a genetically modified animal has its genes interfered with in some way. The main purpose of this alteration is purely scientific in that the animal whose genes have been altered is considered a guinea pig in a given research. In addition to this, the animal’s alteration of genes may be for other many reasons which are evolving day by day making this technology a very important part of human life. Terminologies like the genetically engineered or transgenic processes have been used severally into refer to this same process. Novel combination of genes is the term that is often used in the modern biotechnology to describe an animal which carries genes of another animal (Vincent S and Robertson D. p. 4-10). It is a process that has involves a lot of scientific knowledge bringing together many scientific disciplines to realize the goal of resistance to diseases and accelerated growth in animals. Genetically Modified Animal for Disease Studies One key factor that has seen rapid development of the genetically modified animal technology has been in the research for diseases (Takahashi N and Smithies O p.136). It is a common practice that not to use human beings as guinea pigs in any scientific research. For that cause, human genes are implanted into deferent animals that almost share similar characteristics with human beings. Since it is rare to get such an animal, genetic modification of such an animal is very instrumental as despite the nature or characteristics of an animal, once the recombination of DNA has been done, the genetically modified animal acquires the characteristics of the human beings or to be general, it acquires the characteristics of the source animal. Once the target animal has acquired these genes, the research process takes course. For the purpose of this paper, I am going to consider several animals that have been used in the research centers to investigative different phenomenon that affect human beings. The Mouse For many years, mouse has been used in the research process. Mainly is because the mouse has been in a position to answer many questions of concern that affect the modification of the genes (Carroll L, Voisey J and van Daal A p. 345). This is in connection to the development of organs. Mouse also provides an ideal situation in the analysis of physiological diseases that affect man because it is a vertebrate. This leads to a number of ways in which the mouse genome is manipulated. A genetically modified mouse can be realized when ES cells are used to target the genes. It can also be done through a process called mutagenesis where the chemical mutagens are used (Abbott A. p 432-541). After their use, screening is then done so that a relevant disease model is can be identified. Inactivation of the RNA of a gene is also an approach that is gaining popularity. This method ensures that the RNA is not converted into a protein. All these methods make use of several mice the minimum being 50 in number and extending to hundreds as per the preference of the researcher. It is important to note here that millions of mice are used for a particular mutagenesis or phenotyping studies as accuracy is paramount. Sophistication is storming this industry as mouse clinics are becoming phenomenon features across the world today. This has a direct implication that the capacity of this kind of research is growing rapid with provisions of highly detailed data being eminent. Genetically modified plants Like their counterparts in animals, genetically modified plants have been in existence for quite some time. Though their use faces some opposition, they have continued to be in use. The ideology behind them is as discussed in the animal genetic modification though there are some differences. All of them result from the laboratory whereby two main aims are implanted i.e. adding of nutritional value to the crop/plant or a plant is enhanced in such a way that it can withstand harsh climates or be resistant to diseases (Nature Biotechnology, pp 668-672). The interests are not only restricted to these two but the embedded traits can be altered in any way to fit the situation that is being aimed at. The process has integrated of recent in such a way that genes are transferable between plants themselves and also between plants and other organisms. This diversification has seen improvement in the entire genetically engineered crops making different characteristics more achievable. Why use Genetically Modified Plants? Different organizations and personalities have been in the forefront in championing for the use of genetically engineered plants and precisely crops. A number of benefits have been identified in connection to the fact these crops hold a solution to periodical world hunger crisis. Those who champion for this claims that if the world is not going to embrace this formula of producing crops and plants genetically, then within the next 50 years when world’s population is expected to double to about 12 billion people, it will be difficult to feed the population and other animals. The world will be a hostile place to live in as people and world animals will be competing for the scarce resources that will be availed by the natural methods. But if this technology is adopted early enough, then this crisis can be curbed as early as now. Genetically modified plants have high yield returns as the characteristics can be induced to boost the yield and quality. Proper implantation of this technology can be used to yield foodstuffs which if well stored, can be used to feed several generations down inline. This way hunger will become a thing of the past. Different plants occur only at different parts of the world and not everywhere. The main reason may be climate but diseases have been known to be a reason too. In counteracting these obstacles, genetically modified crops are induced characteristics which ensure that they can cope with any climatic phenomenon. These climatic features include tolerance to extreme coldness or drought characteristics. Additionally, these characteristics ensure the crop becomes resistance to any kind of diseases that inhibit the natural growth of the plant in any part of the world. Pharmaceutical industry has benefited both directly and indirectly with this technology foremost being the readily available enough raw materials needed in the processing of drugs (Trends in Plant Science, pp 219-226). Pests and herbicides have been great enemies for farmers. Through genetically engineered formula, crops which are resistance to these two characteristics have been developed and in return crop yields have been noted to increase. Why the Criticism of Genetically Modified Plants As mentioned earlier, these crops faces some resistant from some people. Some countries have also not endorsed this plan in solving their food shortage problems. Those who are against this method claim that the formula to be an environmental hazard. Eco-system has to balance and the opponents of this formula strongly state that this formula is inhibiting or endangering survival of caterpillars and other living organism (Nature p 214). A point is put across that whatever grows should not endanger the growth of another substance. Up to date, research is going on to ascertain these claims. Some people have complainant of allergenicity. When new genes are introduced into a certain human consumable crop, it is suspected that a new allergen may be formed which would react negatively to some individuals (Nature Biotechnology, pp. 213-217). There is some evidence of this basis whereby the Brazil nuts’ genes which where induced to soybeans were abandoned for causing allergies. Other features that have arisen are that foreign genes in a food line production may implicate new unknown healthy complications thus making it a bit difficulty to diagnose and treat. Pests and other organisms that are being fought tend to develop the resistance of the use these genetically developed substances. This complicates the whole process as it is difficult to deal with resistant pests. Human Gene Therapy This is all about treatment of problems which are genetic in nature among other health complications. Basically it is experimental in nature and primarily takes advantage of genes in treating health problems. The treatment takes place at the molecular level as it attempts to attend to the cells complications which could be genetic in nature. A lot are yet to be known about this therapy but what is at hand currently is that it works by preventing the harmful works of proteins at the cell level and at the same time promoting the good works of the proteins. It has been noted to have some positive impacts in treatment of cancer and genetically acquired complications. Caution must be taken into consideration as this formula is not fully developed to what can be termed as a reliable scientific breakthrough. Gene therapy has been so far identified to have three approaches. Firstly, it deals with replacement. Under this approach, the affected gene which in many cases is responsible for disease causing is literally replaced by another gene. The characteristics of the gene replacing the old one must be similar in all aspects so that no alteration of the cell functionality. Secondly, the therapy can be by a means of inactivating that particular gene which is malfunctioning. In a common man’s language this phenomenon is called “knocking out”. In addition to these two methods, you can opt to carry out the therapy by a way of bringing in a completely new gene to the body with an intention of fight the diseases from the large point of view. Whichever method you use, the human gene therapy has developed efficiency in treatment of both viral and inherited complications among other cancer related diseases. At present, this formula is an option for ailments that have no other medication as it is still risky with research being conducted to check possibility of its full viability. There has been a question of the ethical nature of the gene therapy. Many have questioned who the determiner of the required traits is and the line between good and bad use of this therapy. A question has also been raised as to whether this method can be used in accentuating some human traits. All these factors cannot be addressed with clarity as per now because research still goes on. Germline has attracted heated debates as far as ethics are concerned. This is because, the affected who is the unborn, cannot make choice. Though germline has some identified feature of dealing genetic disorder, it adversely affects the growing fetus. Conclusion As observed, microorganisms are important part and parcel of the human environment. Despite the negatives which come with them like that of causing diseases, these microorganisms can be harnessed and put into more constructive use. As mentioned earlier, a lot still remains to be discovered concerning these organisms. Whether good or bad, only time can tell what will become of the discoveries. The need for genetically modified products is inevitable. It is with no doubt that bettering the production and enhancing the safety of these plant and animal products is all what awaits the researchers to be conducted. In that same tone, it is absolute that human gene therapy needs accelerated research to find the safest methods which can be put in place to ensure that the best of what this technology can offer to humanity has been realized. Worked Cited Abbott A. Geneticists prepare for deluge of mutant mice Nature. 2004. Print Barea J., Pozo M., Azcon R., Azcon-Aguilar C.. 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