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Internet And Biotech: Two Professors Take On Two Phenomena - Essay Example

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To gain a better understanding, he lived in different parts of the world, including Hyderabad, Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay), and Silicon Valley. Kaushik Sunder Rajan is a biologist who also obtained a Ph.D. in History and Social Studies…
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Internet And Biotech: Two Professors Take On Two Phenomena
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INTERNET   AND   BIOTECH:  TWO     TAKE   ON   TWO  PHENOMENA                     Kaushik  Rajan  and  Tiziana  Terranova  are  university  professors  who  have  made        observations  about  the  human  genome  and  the  internet  respectively.  In  Bio Capital:      the  Constitution  of  Postgenomic  Life,  Rajan  explains  how  the  human  genome  pro-      ject  developed  and  what  its  implications  are  for  society.  Terranova  reveals  the  im-      pact  that  the  internet  is having  on society  in  Network  Culture:  Politics  for  the  Infor-      mation  Age.               The  mapping  of  the  human  genome  and  the wide-spread  use  of the internet  are        two  of  the  most  important  phenomena  happening  in  the  world  today.  Rajan  and      Terranova  have  made  an invaluable contribution  in looking  at  these  inventions  and dis-      coveries  from  an  economic  perspective.           To  better  understand  some  of  their  findings,  I  will  divide  this  essay  into  five        parts   as   follows:                                        topic                                                             pp                                   I.   BioCapital                                                      2-6                               II.   Network  Culture                                            6-9                              III.   Rajan  and  Terranova                                 9-10                                    Reinforce  Each  Others  Ideas                              IV.   The  Two  Authors  Differ                                10                               V.   Conclusions                                                 10-11                  By  dividing  the material  thusly,  more  insight  can  be  gained  and more ground      covered.  So,  it  begins.                                                                    -1-            I.   BioCapital:  the  Constitution  of  Postgenomic  Life                 The   relationship  between  science  and capitalism  is carefully  explored  by  Rajan.        He  also  investigates  the  relationship  between  nationalism  and globalization.  To gain  a        better  understanding,  he  lived  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  including  Hyderabad,        Mumbai  (formerly  known as  Bombay),  and  Silicon  Valley.                 R a j a n           Kaushik  Sunder  Rajan  is  a  biologist  who  also obtained  a  Ph.D.  in  History  and        Social  Studies.  He  is  also  a  2006  Microsoft  Research  Fellow.        (http://research.microsoft.com)   Professor  Rajan  started  following  the  human  genome      project  in  1999.  There  was  a  race  to sequence  the genomic  information  because      the information  itself  could be  patented  and  thus  was  now recognized  as  a potential      commodity.  Money  could  be  made  from  it.  (www.anthro.uci.edu/faculty)                    H y d e r a b a d           Hyderabad  is  a  major  city  of  India  that  is  also  the capital  of the state  of   Andhra      Pradesh. (p.77)  As  Rajan  progressed   in  his  study  of  the  human  genome  project,  he      learned  that  Hyderabad  was  becoming a major  international  center  for the  development      of   the  biotech  industry.           The  chief  minister  of   Andhra  Pradesh  was  a  man  named   Chandrababu  Naidu.        During  his  time  in office   (1995-2004)  Microsoft  opened  its  first  research  laboratory        outside  the   United   States.  It  was  opened  in  Hyderabad, India.  Naidu  (or  Babu  as        he  is  also  called)   was  chief  minister  in  the  year  2000   but   his  Vision  2020          (pp.   77,78)   was   that  Andhra  Pradesh  would  be  "a  State  where  poverty  is  totally      eradicated,  where  every  man,  woman,  and   child  has  access  to  not  just  the  basic      minimum  needs,  but  to  all  opportunities  for  leading  a  happy  and  fulfilled  life;   a        knowledge  and  learning  society  built  on  hard  work,  honesty,  discipline,  and        collective  sense  of  purpose." (http://en.wikipedia.org)                                                                     -2-                        G e n o m e   V a l l e y               Rajan  found  that  " the  first  sign  one  is  greeted  with  in  2004  upon  disembarking        at Hyderabad  airport  advertises  Genome  Valley."  (p.77)           Babu  encouraged  the  development  of  what  became  known  as  Genome  Valley.  It      is  a  two  hundred  acre  knowledge  park  which  is a  joint initiative  of  the  Industrial        Credit  and  Investment  Corporation  of  India  ( ICICI ,  the  nations  largest  private  bank)      and  the  Andhra  Pradesh  state  government. (p.92)  The  Knowledge  Park  is  a  first of        its kind  in  India and  in  some  ways  is  modeled  on  Silicon  Valley  USA.  But  whereas        Silicon  Valley  is  primarily  identified  with computers, Genome  Valley is the biotech  hub      of  India.  It  provides  world  class  facilities  to  over one hundred  biotech companies.                    M u m b a i  ( B o m b a y )           Mumbai  is  the  largest  city  of  India  and  has  held  this  distinction  for decades.      (p.84) It  also  happens to be  the fourth  largest city in the world. It  was  formerly  known        as  Bombay  and it is  an  old  city  but this  ancient  city  is also developing  its own      modern biotech industry  as  is  its fellow  Indian city  of Hyderabad.                 While  there  is  nothing  like  Genome  Valley  in that  part of India  yet,  there are        seventy-two  government  or  municipal  hospitals  in  Mumbai  and  ninety-five  private      hospitals. (p.96)  In  addition,  there is  a  biotechnology  company in Mumbai  named        GenoMed  Bombay. (p.93)  GenoMed  is  serious  about  lowering  healthcare  costs  and        improving  patient  outcomes. (www.medicalnewstoday.com)                   Labour  is  cheap  in  Mumbai.  Garment  industry.  Textile industry.  Gem  mines.      There  is an  abundance  of   workers.  If  anyone complains about working conditions,      employers  can  easily  replace  them.               Doctors  sometimes  protest  the poor  state  of public hospitals.  Junior doctors  labour        unreasonably  long hours  within a system  inadequate to meet  patients needs.      (www.ijme.in) There  are  too many patients, not enough doctors.  In recent years  doctors        have  been  physically  assaulted  by patients  relatives  and this  has  led  to  doctors        going  on  strike.                                                                   -3-                       Many  patients  have  complained  that doctors--especially  in public  hospitals--are        brusque,   dismissive,  and  rude.  Being  overworked,  frustrated,  and  feeling  unappreci-      ated  are  some of  the factors  that  cause most doctors to be  rude.   But this does not      happen  only  in  Mumbai.  It  happens  in  all  of  India,  including  Hyderabad.               Public  hospitals  are  intentionally  understaffed  and underequipped. Although  state      and  central  governments  claim support,  there is a  silent  conspiracy to provide  only the      bare minimum  in the public medical system.  This suits the medical and political  elite.        Both are making big money through  the  heavily  privatised  medical  care  system  of        India.  Science,  capitalism,  and  politics    have  combined  to  form  a  negative        relationship  in  this  regard.              G e ne E d  c o m p a n y           Kaushik  Rajan  maintained  his investigation  of  the  human  genome  discoveries  and        found out about a company  named  GeneEd.  This business  was  founded  to  provide  the        life  sciences industry with timely  information  about cutting edge  technologies appropriate        to the needs of people in bioscience.                Sunil  Maulik,  Salil D. Patel,  and  Irving  Weiman  joined  forces  to form  GeneEd.          (p. 239)  Weiman  is a  venture capitalist  and   former  vice  president  at  Prudential        Ventures. (http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org).  Patel  has  a PhD  in biochemistry        from  the  University  of  Southampton,  United  Kingdom.  And  Maulik.  Maulik  is  CEO        of   GeneEd  (p.262)   and  he  obtained  a  Master of Science in x-ray  crystallography  and      a   PhD  in  biophysics ( at Birkbeck  College  in the  University  of London  and  Brandeis        University  in  Waltham, Massachusetts  respectively).                Maulik  spent  fifteen  years in a  variety of positions, starting  in research. (p.242)  He      developed  bioinformatics tools  at  IntelliGenetics  in Mountain View,  California  before        moving  successively  into positions  as technical  support  provider,  manager,        applications  scientist,  sales  scientist,  and a variety  of  other positions.                Maulik  felt  he needed  all these skills  before  starting his  own venture.  He  had        worked  at  companies where  people  loved  their jobs  but  he  had also worked  at                                                                      -4-         companies  where  people  hated  the workplace. (p.249)  Maulik  is  determined that        GeneEd  is  a  place  where  workers  will  want  to  stay.               GeneEd  founders  Dr.  Maulik  and  Dr.  Salil  Patel  had  more than fifteen  years        industry  and teaching  experience  when they  founded  GeneEd  in 1997.  They  delivered        live  seminars  for  scientists, investors,  attorneys,  and  others. (p.243)  They  challenge        for  GeneEd  was  to create software  technologies that could be used to transform        scientific content  into interactive  web based  e-learning  courses  that  retained  the best      elements  of  a  "live  event."                As  eLearning  and  eMarketing  matured, GeneEd  remained  at  the forefront  of  the      pharmaceutical and  healthcare  training  field  by bringing  together  content  experts  with        in-house  scientists  and  instructional  designers.               GeneEd  provides  knowledge in all parts of the  drug  development and  approval      process  including research,  discovery,  development,  patient education,  physician        education,  consumer  education,  and other  related areas.                GeneEds  attempts  to  raise  venture  capital is not always  successful (p.242)  but        the  company  has an  impressive  client  list.  GeneEds  clients  include  Accenture,        AmershamBioSciences,  Amgen,  Astra Zeneca,  Genentech,  IBM  Life  Sciences,  Pfizer,        and  others.                 Partnerships  are  very  important  to  GeneEds  success.  GeneEd  has   formed        partnerships  with  companies  that  hold  strategic  advantages  in  complimentary        products  or  services. (www.geneed.com/company_Backgrounder)                 B i o C a p i t a l                  Rajan  defines  bio capital  (pp. 78-9)  as  " a  study  of  the  systems  of  exchange  and      circulation  involved in the contemporary  working  of  the  life sciences.  GeneEd  is an      example  of  the  uniting  of  venture  capital  with  science.  BioCapital  by  definition  is        the  uniting  of  capital  with  science--particularly  biology,  health,  and  research  to  create      a  business  or  even  an  entire  industry  (Genome  Valley).                                                                    -5-              S i l i c o n   V a l l e y                  Although  Silicon  Valley  was  not the  first place  Rajan  chose to explain the modern      economy--it  was  his  fourth  site (p.193)--he  mentions  it  often  in  the  book: there  are      closer  ties  between  Hyderabad and Silicon Valley  than  between Hyderabad  and some      Indian  cities. (p.92)....in  Silicon  Valley  are  a  large  number  of  Sikh  taxidrivers. (p.182)               Sillicon  Valley  is  a  part  of  San  Francisco  Bay  in  Northern California.  The  term        was  coined  by  journalist  Don  Hoefler  in  1971  to  describe  the  large  number  of        silicon chip  innovators  and  manufacturers  but  now  refers  to  all  high tech businesses        in  the area  and is a  metonym  for high tech sectors  generally.  One of  the first      businesses  was  founded  in  1939  by  William  Hewlett  and  David  Packard,  two        college  students. http://en.wikipedia.org               II. Network  Culture:  Politics  for  the  Information  Age                 Tiziana  Terranova  has  uncovered  some  negative  facts  about the  internet  and the      digital  economy  in  terms  of   the  exploitation  of   workers.  According  to  her,  "the        digital  economy  is  not  as  glamorous  or  as  much  fun as  it  is  made  out  to be."        (p.73)  In  Network  Culture  Terranova  discusses  free  labour,  biological  computation, the        digital  economy,  global computation,  multitude,  peer-to-peer  networking,  and  other        matters of  the information age, such as social  emergence.                   L a b o u r                  The  impact  of  the information  age on  labour  has  been uneven.  Not all  workers  in      this industry have  shared in the wealth generated  by  the internet.  Many  workers in  the        internet  have  experienced  exploitation.  Terranova  discovered  that  AOL   took        advantage  of  chat  hosts  love  of  digital  media and  got  fifteen  thousand  "volunteers"        to  play  chat host  for free. (pp.77, 91-2)                "Free  labour is the  moment where  this knowledgeable  consumption  of culture  is      transplanted into productive  activities that  are  pleasurably  embraced  and at  the same      time often shamelessly  exploited."  (p.78)               Terranova  calls  these  free  labourers  "netslaves."  She  explains  "netslaves  are not        simply  a  typical  form  of  labour  on  the  internet."  (p.73)  She  further  states  that  "free                                                                      -6-         labour  on the  NET  includes the activity  of  building  websites,  modifying  software        packages,  and  participating  in  mailing  lists."  (p.74)                Terranova quotes  Don  Tapscott  who  said in  his  The Digital  Economy,  that  the        digital  economy  is  "a  new  economy  based  on  the networking  of  human        intelligence."   (p.78)  and  (www.electronicbookreview.com)             Professor  Terranova  gleans  from  this  that  "human  intelligence,  however,  poses  a        problem: It  can not  be  managed  in quite the same way  as more traditional types  of      labour.               "Knowledge  workers  need  open  organizational  structures  to  produce  because  the        production  of  knowledge  is  rooted in  collaboration...." (p.78)               Terranova  feels  that  "the  democratic  potential  of  the  internet  is  not all it seems      [but]  if  we  can prove  that  knowledge  workers are  the avant-garde  of labor,  then  the        NET  becomes  a  site  of  resistance."  (p.81)  and  (www.electronicbookreview.com)                   B i o l o g i c a l   T u r n   a n d   C o m p u t a t i o n                     In  chapter  four  (Soft  Control)  of  Network  Culture,   Terranova  writes  about  different      types  of computation.  Computation  is  any  type  of  information  processing, i.e.,        changing  information to make it  usable  by  the  observer.                Biological  computation  (p.98)  is  a  field  of  study  that relies  heavily  on biology,        computer  science,  and  mathematics.  Plainly  stated,  it  is  the use of computers   to      model  nature,  and  simultaneously  the  study of  nature  to  improve  computer usage.      (http://en.wikipedia.org)               For  Terranova,  the  biological  turn  seems  to  take  biological  computation  one  step        further.  "The  biological  turn  is...not  simply  a  new  approach  to  computation,  but  it        also  aspires  to  offer  a  social  technology  of  control  able  to explain  and replicate  not        only  the  collective  behaviour  of  a  distributed  network  such  as  the  internet,  but  also        the  complex  and  unpredictable  patterns  of   contemporary  informational  capitalism."      (p.101)  (underlinings in quote mine)  In  plain  language,  the  biological turn  is any  tech-      nology  that  can be used  to control  people  or  events.                                                                        -7-              One  reason the  powers  that be  may  want  this is because of  global  computation        (p.108)  Global  computation  is a  situation  in which  access  to  computer  resources  is      vast  and  unlimited.(http://homepages.inf.ed.ac)  Access  and  resources  so  vast  in fact,      that  no  one  person  or  even  institution  can  keep track of  who  sees  what  information.                  S o c i a l   E m e r g e n c e           Emergence  is  a  term  used  in  philosophy,  systems  theories,  and   sciences  to        describe  the  development  of  complex  organized  systems. (http://en.wikipedia.org)  In        terms  of  social  emergence  as  it  relates to the internet,  the  internet  was conceived by      its founders  as consisting  of  equal  networks and having  no  central  core  to  manage      [i.e. control]  it.  Thus,  the  founders  of  the  internet  would  be  opposed  to any        biological   turn.  Yet,  Terranova  says  that  "biological  computation  parallels  the  emer-      gence  of  a  larger  set  of social  techniques  to  control  bottom-up  milieus of  self-      organization.  (p.116)  (paraphrased)                 Professor  Terranova  mentions  people  such  as  Don  Tapscott,  Richard  Barbrook,      Franco  Berardi and  others. One  of  the  people  she  gives  attention  to  is  evolutionary      biologist  Richard  Dawkins. (pp.123-7)   Dawkins  coined  the  term        "meme." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme)   Meme  is  a  unit  of        cultural  information  transferable  from one  mind  to  another.  Meme  can  be  put  to        many  different  usages. One  is  peer-to-peer  networking. (p.120)  Peer-to-peer  (p2p)  is        the  meme  of  egalitarian  networking  that  is  currently  emerging  thoroughout  society        [because of]  internet  technologies  and  a critical  look  at  [strict  societies].      (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/peer-to-peer)   Terranova  references  the  Palestinian  Intifadas      effect  on  Arab  youth  and  the  hijackers  who  attacked  on  11 September   as          examples  of  peer-to-peer  networking.  (p.145)  and  (p.128)  respectively.                     M u l t i t u d e s           The  standard  definition  for  the  word  "multitude"  is   synonymous  with  "many."        Websters  definitions  of  the  word:  1) the  state  of  being  many  2) a  great  number        3) crowd  4) populace,  public.                                                                         -8-               Terranovas  definition  of   multitude  "is  defined  mainly  [as]  the  fluidity  of        movement. (p.130)  The  fluidity  of  movement.  She  elaborates  on this  subject  in  a  sec-      tion  of   chapter  four  called  Hacking  the  Multitude (p.116):  "Like  the  smooth  milieus        of  biological  computation,  the  multitude  too  is a  necessarily  vague  term  that  is        defined  mainly [as]  the  fluidity  of  movement  and by  the  formations  that   such  fluidity      leaves  behind  as  a  kind  of  after-effect.  As  such,  it   does  not  deny  the  existence        of  the  stratifications  of  identity  and  class,  but it  opens  up another  dimension where        such  positions  are caught  in terms of other  types  of  capacity.  If  this  is  the  case,        then  biological  computation  (in  its  widest  possible  sense)  is  an  attempt to  hack  the        multitude--to  hack  the  social  at  its  most  fluid  and least  stratified,  wherever  it        escapes  the  constrictions  of  rigid  forms  of  organization  but  also  of  identity  and        class...."  (p.130)  and  (http://lipmagazine.org/ccarlsson)  "Multitude,"  she  states  in  a        further  context,  "unlike  class,  a  multitude  is not  rooted  in  a  solid  class  formation.      (p.130)            III. Rajan  and  Terranova  Reinforce  Each  Others  Ideas              Biological  Strategy  means  viewing  human  effort  as more  important  than computer        technology. (www.stigmergicsystems.com/simpleexplain)                Kaushik  Rajan  and  Tiziana  Terranova  feel  that  whether  in healthcare  or in the        internet,  the  machine  or  system  should  be  subservient  to  the  human,  not  the  other        way  around.  Both  are  concerned  about  the  financial  challenges  that  people  have  to        face  whether  it  be  the  entrepreneurs  of  start-up  industries  or  the  netslaves  of  AOL.      For  Terranova  Silicon  Valley  is  a  negative  ecosystem  whose  success  is based  on        disruptive  technologies. ( Network, p.103)  For   Rajan  it  is  a  place  of  high-risk        investment.  (BioCapital, p.125)               Both  of  these  authors  are  well  educated  and  well  traveled.  He  moved  from  India        to  the  United  States.  She  moved  from  Italy  to  England.  Both  are          university  professors.  Rajan  is  part  of   the  anthropology  department  at  the  University        of  California  in  Irvine   and  Terranova  is  part  of  the  sociology  department  at   the                                                                    -9-            University  of  Essex  in  London. (www.anthro.uci.edu/faculty)  and        (www.essex.ac.uk/sociology/people/staff/terranova.shtm)  respectively.                The   mere  fact  that  they could  go  to  a  foreign  country  and  achieve  the  status      of   a   university  professor  speaks  volumes   in  their  favor.  A   professorship  is  still an        important  position  even  in  the  twenty-first  century.  Considering  the  fact  that  many        native   people  in  England  and  America  work  as  dishwashers  and  janitors,  these  two        authors  have  to  be  very  adept  at  negotiating   with   people. And  by   no  means  is        this  a  putdown  of   dishwashers  or   janitors.  These  two  jobs  are  very  necessary  and        the  employees  who  hold  these  jobs  are  hardworking  people  for  the  most  part.               Rajan  and   Terranova   have   worked  very   hard   to  achieve  the  positions  that        they  have  at  present.  They   extended  much  effort  in   everything   they  have  done        whether  as  scholars,  professors,  or   authors.                      They  have  yet  another   common  interest  in  this  regard:  both  have  helped        investigate  phenomena  that  are  changing  our  world.  In  the  process  they  have        brought  new   perspectives  and  ideas  to  these  major  developments.            IV.  The  Two   Authors  Differ               Both  authors  criticize  the  problems  they  find  but  one  gets  the  feeling  that        Terranova  is  more  critical  and  even  more  pessimistic  in  her  tone  with   regard  to        the  future  of   computer  technologys  impact  on  people  than  Rajan  is  about  the        future   of   biotechnology.   As   mentioned   above,  Terranova  sees  Silicon  Valley  as  a      bringer  of   disruptive  technologies.  (p.103)   She  sees  biological   computation  as  an        attempt  to  hack  or  bring  under  control  the  multitude  of  the  population. (p.130)                Rajan  is  more  sympathetic  to  business  interest  than  Terranova.  He uses  phrases      like  "consumers  should  be  indebted  to  these  companies  for  undertaking  high-risk,"      (p.81)   and  "high  amounts  of  investment   required  to  bring  drugs  to  market." (p.126)               V. Conclusions                Computer  technology  and  biotechnology  will  have  a  large   role  to  play  in  society        in  the  future.  These  technologies  will  not  decrease.  If  anything,  as  the  two authors                                                                   -10-            have  shown,  because  of   the  amount  of  time,  effort,  and  money  put  into  these        industries,  their  place  in  human  life  will  only  increase.               Rajan  and  Terranova,  two  university  professors,  have  educated  their  readers  to        understand  that  this  moment  in  capitalism  has  many  opportunities  and  the  potential        for  great  profit  but  people  must   also  be  on  guard  against  the  possibility  of        injustice  and  exploitation.                In  BioCapital   Rajan  mentions  Aldous  Huxleys   Brave  New   World. (p.208)  It  was        a  world  where  humans  were  created  in  a  lab.  The  world  Huxley  described  was  so        tightly  controlled  there  was  practically  no  escape  from  it.  As  far  as  Terranova  is        concerned,  the   internet  and   biotech  are  here.  We  will  not  escape  them.               This  does   not   mean  of  course  that  Terranova   would  want  us  to  give   up  the        fight.  She   believes   that  it  is  possible   that  knowledge  workers,  the  very  ones  who        are  exploited,  could  be   the  avant-garde   of   a   new   resistance (p.81)  to  the      excesses  of   technology   when   it  turns  negative  toward  humanity.           Video casette  recorders  have  been  on  the  market  for  years,  have  been        purchased  by  millions  of   people.   Yet   there  are   still  millions  who  have  a  difficult        time  setting  the  clocks  that   are  part  of   many  vcrs.  Computers   are  no  less        complicated.   It  is   difficult  for  many  people  to  adjust  to  the  many  changes  that        technology  is   bringing   forth.           The  fact   that  this  is  not  the   first  generation  that   has  had  to  confront  a   new        technology   ought  to  provide  some   edification  if  not   some  comfort.  The  textile        workers  of   early  nineteenth  century   Britain--the  Luddites--also   had  a  difficult  time        adjusting  to  the  new  technologies  of   the  Industrial  Revolution.  They  responded  with        violence  and  ultimately  lost.  So  far  the  people  of  the  twenty-first  century  have not        responded  with   violence  against  biotechnology  or  the  internet.  Some   religious        leaders  are  opposed  to  some  aspects  of   biotech  but  thus  far  the  protest  have        been  verbal  and  peaceful.  No   one  is   really  sure  of  what  direction  the  new        technology  will  take  us   so  everyone   is   unsure   what   humanitys  next  move        should  be.                                                                       -11-                                                                                                           B    I    B    L    I    O    G    R    A    P    H    Y         (books)      Rajan, Kaushik.  BioCapital: The  Constitution  of  Postgenomic  Life.                            Durham, NC: Duke  University  Press,  2006.         Terranova, Tiziana.  Network  Culture: Politics  for  the  Information  Age.                                London: Pluto  Press,  2004.            (websites)         "Microsoft Research  Fellowships."  Microsoft  Research. 23 Dec.2006.                 "Department  of  Anthropology  Faculty."  University  of  California,  Irvine.    23 Dec.2006.              "Nara  Chandrababu  Naidu."  Wikipedia: the  Free  Encyclopedia. 26 Dec.2006.               "GenoMed  Cleared  By  Indian  Government  To  Distribute  HealthCare  to  India."    30 Aug 2006. Medical  News  Today. 23 Dec.2006               Thomas, George. "Junior  Doctors, Strikes,  and  Patient Care  in  Public  Hospitals."                  Apr-June 2006.  Indian  Journal  of  Medical  Ethics. 23 Dec.2006.                                                                                         Maulik,Sunil. "A  Career  in  E-learning." 3 November  2000.  American  Association  for                  the  Advancement  of  Science.  26 Dec.2006.                             "Company  Backgrounder."  GeneEd. 26 Dec.2006.                                                                                         -12-                  "Silicon  Valley."  Wikipedia:the Free  Encyclopedia. 26 Dec.2006.               Terranova, Tiziana. "Free Labor:Producing  Culture  for  the  Digital  Economy."                 26 July 2005. Economic  and Research  Council. 26 Dec.2006.                           "Biologically-inspired  computing."  Wikipedia: the  Free  Encyclopedia. 26 Dec. 2006.                     Cardelli, Luca. "Global  Computation." 1996. ACM Computing  Surveys. 26 Dec. 2006                          "Emergence."  Wikipedia: the  Free  Encyclopedia. 23 Dec. 2006             < http://en.wikipedia.org>            "Meme."  Wikipedia: the  Free  Encyclopedia. 23 Dec.2006                         "Peer-to-Peer." Wikipedia: the  Free  Encyclopedia  23 Dec. 2006                         Carlsson, C.  "Attitude  Adjustor:Network  Culture." 04 Jan 05. LipMagazine. 26 Dec.2006                         Small,  Peter. "Explaining  Biological  Strategy."  2003.  StimergicSystems                              26 Dec. 2006    < www.stigmergicsystems.com/simpleexplain/biopaper1.html>               "Department  of  Sociology: Dr.  Tiziana Terranova  MA  PhD. 2005.  University  of               Essex,  UK.  26 Dec. 2006.                                                                                     -13-              Read More
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