Human Skeleton - Assignment Example

College ANTHROPOLOGY Lab assignment 3 How does variation come about? Give 3 examples Variation comes as a result of alteration in the DNA in any living body. When DNA is altered it can be replicated, Trans located or deleted in its different parts or as a whole. There are a ways in which variation can come about. Examples include, natural selection, mutations and genetic drift 2. What is a gene? Basically, a gene is the most important unit of heredity and affects the physical and function aspects of a living organism. A gene essentially makes up the DNA. Genes are expressed as structural proteins, hormones and enzymes Basically, gene expression is a process that leads to the formation of gene products in that they are made up from information carried in the gene. Gene expression involves proteins, hormones as well as enzymes for the process to occur. The process begins with structural proteins which bind together to form a polypeptide chain. They are expressed with a specific order. An enzyme is used at the beginning of expression known as enzyme transcriptase and later on a hormone is used to ensure the transcription process occurs. The hormone also ensures that a stop codon is produced to ensure the end of transcription. Proteins, enzymes and hormones are fundamentals in gene expression 3. How do meiosis and mitosis differ? How are they related to inheritance? To begin with, meiosis occurs in gametes while mitosis occurs in somatic cells or rather body cells. Also, meiosis leads to production of haploid cells while mitosis results into diploid cell production. Another difference is that meiosis occurs in two cycles whereby the second phase involves crossing over to produce the haploid cells while in mitosis only one cycle is involved for the production of diploid cells. They are both related to inheritance since they both involve the transmission of genes form the parent cells to the diploid and haploid cells that they create. In mitosis, the each chromosome divides into two and one half is taken to the new diploid cell thus there a gene transfer from all chromosomes to the new cell formed after separation on different poles. In meiosis on the other hand, the process tends to be longer as it occurs in two phases. The principle of independent assortment takes place where each cell has to release its paternal and maternal gene to the new cell created. Contributions to the new cell come from both sexes hence inheritance. 4. Table-Brach dactyl B b B BB Bb b Bb bb Genotype ¼ RECESSIVE ¾ DOMINANT Phenotype 3 with short toes and fingers, 1 with normal toes and fingers 5. Table Y y y Yy yy y Yy yy Genotype ½ dominant, ½ recessive Phenotype 2 with 6 fingers, 2 with normal 5 fingers 6. Table Xh Y Xh Xhxh Yxh x Xhx Yx Genotype ½ dominant female ¼ dominant male ¼ recessive male Phenotype 2 hemophilic females, 1hemophilic male and 1 non hemophilic male 7. Calculate frequencies using H.W.E p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 q2 is homozygous recessive i.e. 25/100 Therefore q is 5/10 or ½ Q=0.5 p + q = 1 Therefore, p=1-1/2=1/2 P=1/2=0.5 P2 =1/4*100=25% 2pq= percentage of heterozygous people 2*1/2*1/2= ½ 2pq=0.5*100=50% Thus, Frequency of recessive allele is 0.5 Frequency of dominant allele is 0.5 Percent of homozygous dominant individuals is 25% Percent of heterozygous individuals is 50 % 8. p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 q2 =9/100 Therefore q= 3/10 P+q=1 Thus, p= 1- 3/10=7/10 P2= (7/10)2 P2= 49/100 2pq= 2*7/10*3/10=42/100 or 0.42 2pq is therefore 0.42*100=42% Thus, Frequency of recessive allele is 0.3 Frequency of dominant allele is 0.7 Percent of homozygous dominant individuals is 49% Percent of heterozygous individuals is 42% 9. Blood group inheritance Fred(AB) Jerry (O) Ginger (O) AO, BO AO,BO Thus , A/B OO, OO OO, OO Thus, O Therefore, ultimately since the baby is of blood group A, the father is with no doubt FRED 10. NANCY B Tom B BB,BB,BB,BB Or BO,BO,BO,BO Therefore the child has to be of blood group B since a test result of BO or BB are equivalent to B Their child is baby 1 of blood group B 11. Mark A Ann B AB,AB,AO,AO AB.AB,BO,BO Therefore, the child must be of blood group AB, B OR A OR O Their child was thus baby with blood group O, baby 2 Mark’s genotype is thus, AO Ann’s genotype is thus, BO 12. Jacob A Esther AB AA,AO,AB,BO AB,AB,BO,BO AB,AB,AB,AB AA,AA,AB,AB Potential blood types of the baby are A, B or AB Potential genotypes for their baby are AA, AO, AB, and BO 13. Jim A Jerry O Ginger 0 AO,OO OO The baby is of blood group O Ultimately the father is Jerry LAB 4: The Human Skeleton 4a-1 Structure feature plane Pubic symphysis anterior Acetabulum medial Iliac crest inferior Lower Limb Femoral head Horizontal Femoral condyles inferior Tibia condyles inferior Medial malleolus distal Lateral malleolus posterior Upper limb Humeral Head distal Trochlea and capitulus lateral and medial Radial Head proximal Olecranon process anterior Semilunar notch posterior Glenoid fossa distal Subscapularis fossa superior Infraspinatus fossa anterior Supraspinatus fossa inferior Scapular spine medial Skull Supraorbital torus superior Mastoid process inferior Occipital lateral Mandible proximal Maxilla proximal Parietal anterior Laboratory quiz on skeletal parts 4: 1 proximal articulating surface of femur? Acetabulum 4:2 what articulates with 1? (Acetabulum) The head of femur 4:3 identify the proximal end of the tibia The medial and lateral condyles 4:4 what articulates with 4:3? The head of the tibia 4:5 Identify the most superior bone of the coxal bone The iliac crest 4:6 identify the most superior aspect of the bone in 4:5 It is the bone that provides surface for bone grafting 4:7 identify the most inferior bone of the skull Occipital bone 4:8 identify the largest of the tarsal bones Calcaneus 4:9 identify the anterior surface of the scapula The subscapular fossa 4:10 identify the most posterior aspect of the scapula The spine 4:11 identify the proximal end of the humerus The head 4:12 what articulates with 4:11 (head) Scapula 4:13 which bone crosses over the other in the forearm Radius crosses over the ulna 4:14 how many phalangeal bones exist in one hand? Thirteen bones. 4:15 identify the most proximal aspect of the ulna. The ability to fracture is easily happens to be the most proximal aspect of the ulna. 4:16 identify the lateral lower leg bone? The fibula 4:17 most distal aspect of fibula? The fibularis brevis 4:18 what articulates the distal end of the radial and ulna Carpals bones of the wrist 4:19 what is the human dental formula Adult; 2123/2123 4:20 identify the most inferior lateral bone of the cranium Temporal bones 4:21 Identify most inferior aspect of temporal bones It structures require cautious identification as well protection 4:22 which epiphyseal plates are fused in figure 17, what are the appropriate minimum and maximum ages of this individual. The epiphyseal plates fused are the growth plates of the humerus. The individual may have a minimum age of two years, meaning it could be a baby and a maximum age of twelve years. The epiphyses in the fig 17 shows a humerus open proximal epiphysis. 4:23 Which teeth are full erupted, which teeth are in the process of eruption and which teeth are not yet erupted in the basicranum in figures 15 and mandible in fig 18. Estimate ages in both figures In fig 15. The cranium has a number of teeth that have already erupted. These include the incisors and the canines. One pair of the premolars has fully erupted. The other premolars are still erupting with the one more pair that has not yet erupted as well as the molars where there is no sign of any. In fig 18, the mandibular dentition of the juvenile. All the teeth have erupted apart from the molars. Both pairs of the molar have not grown as the total number of teeth in the lower jaw are fourteen. 4:24 describe the morphology of pubic symphysis in figures 19, 20, 21 The coxal bone is made up of three bones. Its pubic symphysis provides a joint where the bones of the coxal meet. They then articulate with the pubis and the sacrum. A coccyx is found interior to the sacrum. The pubic symphysis is covered by a fibrocartilagious pad known as the interpubic disc. Also, the pubic symphysis is occupies twenty percent of the acetabulum. Fig 19 shows the pubic symphysis 1 of the coxal bone This shows a less diminished pubic symphysis where its horizontal ridges have formed a defined shape with a circular edge. The bone is well developed and thick. Fig 20 shows the pubic symphysis 2 of the coxal bone In this figure, the pubic symphysis appears to have a very sharp end. There is growth towards one side and the end is thinner than that of fig 19. Fig 21 shows the pubic symphysis of the coxal bone In the figure, the edge that was sharp earlier on in fig 20 has fallen off. There is some space that has been created where the sharp edge was. The bone is thicker and smaller. 4:25 create a seriation from youngest to oldest, with a justification for this particular ordering Figure 19 shows the youngest individual, fig 20 shows the middle aged adult while fig 21 belongs to the oldest adult. During the articulation of the coxal bones, disintegration occurs. At an early adult life, the bone has not diminished in any way. As the individual continues to age, the pubic symphysis continues to diminish and becomes oval and sharper. After some age, maybe after forty years, the pubic symphysis falls off as it has disintegrated as a result of the articulation along the coxal bone. 4:26 describe the amount of suture closure shown in fig 15. Given that the basilar suture is closed in this individual, provide a an appropriate minimum and maximum age The amount of suture closure in fig 15 is too close to end of fusion of the bones in the cranium. This indicates that the skull is very old or belongs to someone who died at an older age. An estimation of the minimum age of the individual is forty years while the maximum is seventy years of age. 4:27 provide a sex determination and justification for the pelves in fig 22 and 23 In fig 22, the pelvis is of a female due to the oval inlet of the pelvic, a pronounced and elongated pubic body as well as short and broad sacrum. Also, the sub pubic angle appears to be wide, flaring iliac blades and the superior ramus of the pubis is long. In fig 23, the pelvis is definitely that of a male as the pelvic inlet is heart shaped, the body is compressed as well as a long and narrow sacrum. The iliac blades are vertical while the superior ramus is shorter. The sub pubic angle is narrow hence a male pelvis. 4:28 what is the probable sex of the skull in fig 24 and why The sex belongs to a male individual. This is because the teeth are big, and the forehead appears to be sloppy. In addition, the mastoid process is large and protruding while the chin is more like a square as well as big. The brow ridge has also projected massively giving the skull gonial angle close to ninety degrees. Work cited Steele, D G, and Claud A. Bramblett. The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1988. Print. Read More