Previous Development Approaches - Essay Example

Final Exam Essay INTRODUCTION Development is essentially believed to be necessary and according to the term interfered by the western economies, it incorporates every kind of projects in underprivileged areas of the world. When these projects are unable to achieve the required outcomes, they generate a host of consistent and undervalued impacts comprising the growth of bureaucratic power and the evolution of political certainties of poverty and subjection into technical problems anticipating resolutions by developmental agencies and experts. It is the political intelligibility of the impacts along with the development procedures that generate such outcome. By utilizing the anthropological approach, James Ferguson, an American anthropologist analyzed the institutional framework within which such developmental projects are made. He critiqued the idea of ‘development’ and viewed it by multiple unsuccessful attempts. Furthermore, he also inscribed innumerable development organizations that have their influence in the third world domain and highlighted that these organizations have consistently failed to bring economic stability. By criticizing the development, he posed a question about ‘what is to be done’ in order to reduce poverty and to bring stability in the economy. He developed the idea of ‘anti-politics machine’ in order to evaluate the development apparatus that development discourse generates a fantasy of less developed country (LDC) (Ferguson 279-283). THESIS STATEMENT The essay tries to provide answer to the question about ‘what is to be done’ posed by Ferguson. While giving explanation to the question, the essay also discusses the problems found in previous developmental approaches. Furthermore, it also argues the concept of Ferguson and delineates ways for avoiding development problems. CRITIQUES IN PREVIOUS DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES Ferguson explained that the development discourse fantasy of LDC ascends due to certain reluctant logic preserved in development organizations. The key assumptions of LDC fantasy is that people are isolated, sustenance planters and that government is a collection of generous bureaucrats that only desires to improve their respective country, but do not possess the resources or technical expertise to do so. These aspects allow development projects to improve infrastructure, establish national market, educate farmers regarding commercial agriculture exporters and support the governments in their tasks to appropriately direct development. However, Ferguson stated that these assumptions are false on the basis of his study on incorporated rural development project of Lesotho as a backward and mainly farmer based society in requirement for transformation and therefore development intervention. Ferguson argues that development is one of the leading challenging or informational grids by which disadvantaged regions of the world are known. The effect of this on practice can be unintentional but simultaneously support prevailing structure of power. The Lesotho project hence can be determined to be chiefly unsuccessful as an attempt to improve agricultural production and to alleviate poverty, rather it contributed to the strengthening and enlargement of governmental state power, while in unison depoliticizing both poverty as well as the region (Ferguson 279-283). Ferguson and other anthropologists have developed the concept of ‘post-development theory’. They argue that development is always unfair, never works and clearly fails to achieve its objective. The idea of development stands such as intellectual landscape requires undoing the mental structure of development. Post-development theory highlights that in the hierarchy of developed and underdeveloped countries, underdeveloped countries are observed as substandard and in requirement of assistance from developed countries and also having a desire to become developed countries. Post-development school also points out that the model of development is essentially ethnocentric in nature and is based on western models of industrialization which is unsustainable in the world of limited resources and also ineffectual for the obliviousness of the local, cultural and historical setting of the countries to which they are implemented. In real sense, the problem of development approaches and their practices can create an imbalance of influence or domination by the western countries (Ferguson 279-283). One of the key assumptions of Ferguson is the thought of middle class, nuclear household and mass consumption. In this sense, development is observed as necessitating the cost or certainly the thoughtful extinction of native culture or other internally and environmentally affluent and satisfying ways of life. Thus, previously acceptable ways of life become frustrating as development changes an individual’s insight of themselves. Development is observed as a collection of knowledge in order to intervene, transform and rule. Post-development theory reviews the idea of distinct path of development and demands the acknowledgement of diversity and cultural viewpoints and primacies. It attempts to overcome inequality by opening up places for individuals along with their anxieties (Ferguson 279-283). CRITICISM OF POST-DEVELOPMENT THEORY There are several objections regarding post-development theory. First of all, it rejects development approaches, which can clearly be termed as refusal of opportunity for material development and revolution. It also disregards the thought of tangible revolutions in life prospects and health welfare of people which is pertinent in developed countries. Thus, by disapproving development approaches all at once, Ferguson failed to communicate the heterogeneity within development ways. He classified every development approach within the authority of Western supremacy. It is also argued that post-development theory perpetuates cultural contingency, however, the thought of cultural principles and practices can only be adjudicated by those who implement them. By accepting every cultural action and principle as valid and by refusing a universal standard for lifestyle, post-development approach signifies a conflicting risk of universalism (Povinelli 505-518). Furthermore, Ferguson also rejected centralized approach of development and supported development by local ways thus spreading neo-liberal principles. In other words, by focusing on local rather than international viewpoint, the neo-liberalist thought supports regionalized projects and disregards the likelihood of supporting disadvantaged demographics. It has made misleading assumptions that such demographics must prosper on its individual initiative (Ferguson 279-283). WHAT SHOULD BE DONE What should be done in order to pursue development has become a part of desire for many nations. The question implies a subject, an objective and an actor who maneuvers towards that objective. The first phase that can be agreed for development is to clarify the objective and the tactics appropriate to achieve it. Since it is powerlessness that ultimately triggers the surface circumstances of poverty, ill-health and starvation, the superior objective should therefore to be empowerment of people. However, the question of the subject and the actor still remain entirely vague. The liberal strategies can fill the gap left by this vagueness in its individual unrecognized way. In this form, it appears that the question is pointless as in reality it acts to camouflage the actual facts and interested creations. As a practical strategy and not as an ideal ethical form, the question ‘what is to be done’ necessities answering it ‘by whom’ it should be done? Ferguson brought thoughtful insights regarding typical evolutionary belief of development. However, the nodal point of development discourse has changed in present times, because people live in different situations today as compared to during 1950s. Nowadays, the emerging economies are much different than the so-called fourth world and as globalization picks up, they commune full of resources or individuals with strong purchasing power. In order to achieve development, democracy, equality and empowerment should be worked for and brought about by benevolent interventions of state agencies (Ferguson 279-283). What is to be done is not clearly a question of only development, although development of course is essential, there seem to be a strong political determination to do what is required in order to end poverty. For example, by strong and targeted growth, China has been capable of bringing 600 million individuals out of poverty. However, at the same time, the development of China is causing other negative impacts such as pollution and acceleration of global warming. To a certain extent, the development is not shared equally by leaving out female along with other vulnerable classes. Agricultural reform can also encourage growth and equality. By establishing roads, property rights and by providing finances, government can target growth for the benefit of poor individuals (Elyachar 137-213). Development projects properly designed can have both environmental along with social benefits. For example, in South Africa, Solar Sister project has generated about US$46 for each US$1 invested in solar energy. This is particularly vital when it is believed that billions of people in South Africa still depend on wood or other biomass for the purpose of cooking. Despite being time consuming, such strategies can reduce the existence of local plants and most significantly these energies are also bad for health (Solheim, “To End Poverty We Also Need to Ensure Equality and Sustainability”). Development can also be green and fair. In order to accomplish true development, there is a need to balance the economic growth and equality with environmental sustainability (West 141-197). CONCLUSION The ideas of Ferguson concentrate on the negative outcome of development approaches. He stated that development projects are unable to create the desired outcome, rather they can have an unexpected outcome. The ideas criticize the standard assumption regarding development and promote more pluralism regarding development. To a certain extent, his ideas are supported in the sense that true development requires changing the priorities from the influence of western experts and other officials to non-western people. Development as a philosophy is deep-seated in the principle of transformation which holds western model to follow. At its heart, the idea of development is diverse and no single approach is suitable in order to remove poverty and to develop society. In conclusion, it can be stated that since the reasons for development problem differ, experiences differ and therefore the solutions can also differ from nation to nation. Development comprises both locally and internationally focused projects and the way organizations understand the social and economic problems. Works Cited Elyachar, Julia. Markets of Dispossession. United States: Duke University Press, 2005. Print. Ferguson, James. The Anti-politics Machine: "Development," Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. University of Minnesota Press, 1994. Print. Povinelli, Elizabeth A. “Do Rocks Listen? The Cultural Politics of Apprehending Australian Aboriginal Labor”. American Anthropologist 97.3 (1995): 505-518. Print. Solheim, Erik. To End Poverty We Also Need to Ensure Equality and Sustainability. Guardian News and Media Limited, 2013. Web. 18 Mar. 2014. West, Paige. Conservation is Our Government Now: The Politics of Ecology in Papua New Guinea. United States: Duke University Press, 2006. Print. Read More