Female Genital Mutilation in Africa - Research Paper Example

Female Genital Mutilation in Africa (With Regard to the Prevalence of FGM in Africa, What Justifications Do the Supporting Societies Have for the Practice, And Which Measures Have The African Government/Societies taken to Eradicate the Problem?) Author’s Name Institutional Affiliation Abstract Female genital mutilation/circumcision (FGM/C) is a pre-dominant problem highly prevalent in African countries than any other continent. The research paper discusses the justifications of the practice in the wider societies of African countries practicing it and the measures taken to address the problem. FGM is reportedly practiced from the western stretch of Africa into the central, eastern and north eastern Africa excluding the Northern Arabic and South African countries. It has been conducted by selective ethnicities, tribes and clans and often associated with Islamic religion, majorly on the grounds of upholding traditions and cultures, for chastity, purification and as a religious obligation. These justifications are based on beliefs and myths of the traditions and religion. Depending on the interventions taken in country levels to fight FGM some have facilitated the decline of the prevalence rate, while others remain dormant or ineffective. To curb the problem, safe shelters for FGM escapees have been established and even funded, while anti-FGM laws and campaigns are broadly in place as government strive to enforce the regulations. Keywords: FGM (Female Genital Mutilation), Tradition, Culture, Religion, Purification, Marriage, Chastity, Governments, Justifications, Community, Leaders, Sahara Region Introduction Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a global problem affecting a minority of the female gender and associated with serious health illnesses. Women and young girls (minor) have fallen victims of the prevalent FGM, often embraced in the settings and societies they are brought up. It is a procedure that has seen millions of women suffer, ashamed and even afraid to speak about it. While male circumcision is acceptable and dominant across the continents, female circumcision has in the past attracted divided attention from its supporters and opponents. It’s a widespread problem in Africa and Middle East compared to the western world. However, due to the immigration policies adopted by different industrialized nations, the FGM culture did gradually enter into the western countries, especially since the first black movement from the south into the north. According to WHO, female circumcision is an operation “involving removal of total or partial external female genitalia or other injuries to the female genital organs for non medical reasons” (2008, p.2). The research paper expounds on the study of FGM in Africa Thesis With regard to the prevalence of FGM in Africa, what justifications do the supporting societies have for the practice, and which measures have the African government/societies taken to eradicate the problem? To answer the question, the research investigates into the culture and beliefs of the distinct communities and the interventions undertaken in respective countries. Massive support of FGM is based on religious, tradition and acclaimed chastity justifications. Anti-FGM regulation, communities’ education and awareness campaigns, and girl-child protection are among the measures taken to tackle the persistent problem. This continues to be facilitated by coordinated efforts of the government, activists, communities and NGOs. The paper gives a brief overview of the prevalence in section 1, justifications in section 2, measures to counter FGM in section 3 and finally the conclusion. Section 1: Preview of FGM prevalence in African region Over the past decade, different African countries have shown varying results in the trend of FGM. Statistics reveal that approximately of 91. 5 million females of the 140 million worldwide victims of FGM are from African continent, where as 3 million more girls/women face the risk of the practice each year (PRB, 2010). From the past it has been linked to ethnicities and religions in the African population. The Saharan region stretching from the far west of Mali to central, east and North eastern African countries record the highest rates across the World. It’s practiced in 28 African countries, common among both Muslim and Christian communities, where the prevalence rate were highest (above 90 %) in Somalia, Egypt, Sudan, Djibouti, Sierra Leone and Guinea, while lowest (below 4%) in Uganda, Niger, Cameroon and Ghana for the surveyed period between 2004 and 2006 (PRB, 2010). Countries such as Kenya that have taken strict and monitored interventions against FGM have recorded declining rate of the procedure. Others have shifted to less severe forms of FGM with time, but the practice and rates of practice remain relatively high and persistent. Despite the campaigns African population is far from abandoning the practice. Section 2: Justifications forwarded Mystified belief of purification Some communities have persistently practiced FGM for the attributed reasons of physical hygiene required of the woman. In regions of east and north eastern Africa, the word tohara and dhahara from Swahili and Somali origin respectively are used commonly among FGM supporters to imply ritual cleanliness. Just like men who undergo circumcision, for women, there is a belief that the folding of skin as the clitoris grows longer tend to harbour massive dirt/waste form sweat and sexual intercourse. The communities extend to interpret that only removal of the skins (circumscion) is sufficient for the woman to achieve a state of cleanliness. For the case of communities in Somali and north eastern Kenya, the sexual purity of woman is of great importance because it’s what make them eligible for certain cultural and religious practices. From a Somali perspective, every individual irrespective of gender is regarded as impure right from birth: therefore, just as men, women purification entails mutilation where the clitoris parts are removed, symbolizing the permanent elimination of dirt (Vestbostad and Blystad, 2014). Majority of women hence prefer the circumcisions to avoid the state of being ‘othered.’ Apparently, the uncircumcised women can be ostracized from the social setting, because they are considered polluted and unhygienic. Based on the cultures, they cannot prepare ceremonial food, serve the elders and even criticized of their Islamic religious belief. The tohara/dhahara effect a major justification for FGM among Somalis, with regard to debunk able belief of cleanliness and health reasons. Religious practice FGM has become a socially acceptable practice in some African societies where the members of the community affiliate it to religious obligations. While majority people would associate it with Islamic religions, a percentage of Christians and traditional believers across the Sahara regions are known to practice it. Take an example of Eygpt, it has a high population of Muslims and a proportionate number Coptic Christians who exercise FGM. Other natives also practice it as religious rituals required for the girl child. The religious interpretation of the spiritual holy books/scripts and divided stand among the religious leaders allow the continued spread of the FGM in Africa. Female circumcision is highly associated with Muslim religion and believers. However, not all faithful Muslims in Africa and across the world practice FGM. One finds great contrast between Somali/Egypt Muslim and those of the Middle East like Saudi Arabia who never practice FGM. The deviation arises from the interpretation of the religious script (hadiits), which introduces the established controversy over the practice of FGM among Muslims. The Quran and Sunnah are some of the basic sources of way of life and spiritual guidance for the Muslims. Sunnah accredited to be authentic teachings by prophet Muhammad through the hadiits has often been used to justify FGM among few in the Muslim’s community. According to Asmani and Abdi the Hadith of Ummu-Attiya most cited claims that prophet Muhammad instructed the woman of Madina stating,“‘ashimmi’ and do not exaggerate; as doing so will preserve the fairness of the woman’s face and satisfy the husband” (2008, p.12). Opponents of FGM claims that the term ‘ashimmi’ used has numerous meaning, making it weak and unclear to accurately establish what the prophet intended to imply. Contrary, most practicing Muslims interpret the word as cutting and will justify FGM as an Islamic obligation in relation Sunna circumcision. It’s evident that FGM has acquired an Islamic justification among Muslim communities across Africa. Though still controversial, children brought up with such interpretation of the hadiits will have no objection to practice of FGM. Hoffmann’s research of FGM in Egypt reveal that the “practice has its roots in being an act of obedience or honor to the teachings of religion” (2013, p. 3). Among the practicing Muslims in Africa it not only has the meaning of hygiene, but also spiritual purification. This makes FGM a spiritual requirement for the minority Muslim practitioners. Considering the divided stand and support among religious leaders, a greater number tend to internalize the distorted belief and practice of FGM under the influence of and interpreted teachings of their leaders. Aware of the persistent practice, some religious leaders opt to avoid the topic or support less severe forms of circumcision (e.g., type 1). Taking into account the Hadith of Ummu-Attiya, they fail to admonish FGM in favour of reducing rather than exaggerated mutilation. Either way, refraining from the issue or approving the level of the cut tend to support the practice. Similarly, certain religious (Muslims, Christian or traditional) leaders are hesitant to condemn it because of the acclaimed moral benefits associated with circumcised women. Since they are part of the greater society or even married to circumcised spouses, they share the belief and show solidarity with the societal customs. Tradition and cultural justifications a. The practiced custom African is known to be historical rich continent of culture and tradition, which are passed down the generations ad enforced in the societies. Therefore, whether learned, illiterate, wealthy or poor majority of the families are entangled in the traditions of the lands and those passed down from their ancestors. No doubt that FGM tradition over decades has become an embedded factor in the Africans’ psyche through tribes, clans and families. A practice of the ancestors is repeatedly carried out by grandparents, parents and existing generation with many unable to question its credibility. Enforced by the protectors of the traditions and respectable elders of the community, FGM is embraced as a tradition, custom and a requirement of the women from the clans/families whose ancestors practiced it. In the western African countries, FGM is strongly linked to initiation and justified as a traditional practice. Across the Sahara region, those women highly affected are those from the rural areas where traditions are intense. Influenced by tradition, most girls willfully accept to undergo circumcision during the cutting seasons when they are of age. Urbanization in Africa has facilitated decline of FGM, such that most girls/women raised in urban regions have access to education and knowledgeable enough to challenge the FGM traditions of their parents/clans. However, depending on the beliefs most parents may still force their daughters in fear unknown misfortune that may befall their family or daughters if they rejected the tradition. b. Marriage Most traditional observant men prefer circumcised wives, which makes it an essential condition for marriage. For the practicing communities, FGM is treated as a rite of passage for girls into womanhood, which prepares them for marriage life. From the traditional set up, circumcised women are treated with respect and are believed to be disciplined and attract suitors for marriage. To FGM supporting parents, their daughters become eligible for marriage, eliminating the burden for their care as single women and ensuring that with a husband their economic security in future is guaranteed. Traditional men also claim that circumcised girls are easy to sexually satisfy because their sexual urge is controllable upon cutting. Others as in Mali and Burkina Faso require cutting of the clitoris under the assumption that its existence is an aspect of masculinity in women and it obstructs sexual obligation of the men (Africans women’s organization, 2003). Following these beliefs, girls and parents are willing to practice it secure their daughters’ life and make them desirable to men based on the norms of the society. c. Chastity Another cultural belief and support for FGM in Africa is based on the assumptions that circumcision makes the female chaste. According to McGee, “in cultures and tribes throughout east, west, and central Africa, female circumcision represents the means of preserving a womans chastity by protecting her from her own ‘oversexed nature,’ thus saving her from temptation, suspicion, and disgrace” (2005, p. 139). In other words, women need to be circumcised to remove/reduce the sensitive genital tissues (clitoris and labia) to control their sexual desires. The communities believe that circumcised as young girls, they can refrain from premarital sex and keep their virginity till marriage. Otherwise, the uncircumcised girl/woman gets uncontrollable sexual urge that puts her at risk of infidelity in pursuit of satisfaction only to lose morals and become a disgrace to their families. Section 3: Interventions taken to eradicate FGM practice a. Safe shelters for the girl child Countries in Eastern Africa led by Kenya where prominent activists against FGM have emerged have supported safe shelters for the girl child to escape forced FGM and early marriages. These shelters are collaboratively funded by states and NGOs to provide the girls child with basic amenities, counseled and taught of their human rights to restore/build their confidence (Equality now, 2011). Such safe havens have worked effectively to support the decline of FGM practice within Maasai and Samburu communities. From the protection, the same girls as adults, educated and knowing their rights become top activists for the abolition of FGM when they reintegrate back in their societies. The shelters approval and support from the communities and parents (especially mothers) portray a society willing to shift from oppressive traditions. b. Anti-FGM law Existing laws in most African countries have banned FGM in pursuit for girl child protection. Numerous abolitionists and other interested agencies within the African settings have worked tirelessly, especially since the mid 20th century to reviewing of child protection laws against oppressive traditions and cultures. With supportive political influence and NGO bodies, most African countries of the Sahara region have prohibited FGM practice. According to WHO, half of the FGM practicing countries in Africa did enact legislations forbidding female circumcision, while “seven more have incorporated anti-FGM into their constitutions/criminal laws” (2015). However, despite such enactments, some have failed because of lacking enforcement. This explains the variation between decline of FGM prevalence in east Africa and stagnant rates in West African countries. There is bound to be wide variations in prevalence of FGM in Africa based on the existing laws and their enforcement. For a country like Gambia with no regulation that outlaws the practice, Guinea where anti-FGM law has been deemed dormant, Somali with recent anti-FGM law but seriously struggling with insecurity and Kenya which enacted the law and has progressively enforced it via criminal sanctions. It’s evident that the enactment of anti-FGM laws is a stride towards eradication, buts not sufficient enough. Laws need to be amended with the changing nature of crime and strictly enforced to be effective. For example Senegal among few others did ratify anti-FGM law in 90s, but still lag behind in elimination of FGM. Contrary, Kenya which outlawed FGM in 2001 has declined FGM by approximately 10% within a decade. The extra-territorial clause within the Anti-FGM laws of East African countries enable curbing of FGM practice and harsh penalty for practitioners who cross the borders to neighboring countries to conduct the act (African arguments, 2013). Therefore, families, communities and exercisers of FGM have no opportunity of practicing it with the countries where the law or extra-territorial clause applies, but leave them with the obligation to comply with the anti- FGM regulations. c. Anti-FGM campaigns Media campaigns Through the media, influential political leaders and public figures across the African countries and continents have acted as spokes agents against FGM and denouncing existing myths that support it. First ladies have actively taken the role in campaigning for zero tolerance to FGM and mobilizing the women to protect their daughters and speak against it openly. Examples are Chantal Compaore from Burkina Faso among others of West Africa and current Margaret Kenyatta of Kenya from the East. TVs and radio frequencies have effectively availed the message to the practicing communities at the rural region through their community/tribal ambassador. Religious leaders A religious oriented approach has been utilized to clarify the religious stand on practices of FGM where the council of Imam and Christian denomination leaders condemn ill practices and teach the religious guide on preserving the woman’s body. Most religious leaders caution and teach their followers in public forums and from the religious platforms where they command influence. As such religious leaders can have one stand and condemn FGM in unison. Working together with governmental and international anti-FGM bodies, religious leaders are enlightened to transfer the knowledge to other subordinate officials and eventually followers at the grassroots levels to abandon the practice. Community oriented approach Anti-FGM campaigns also focus on educating the community and raising awareness of the risks and implications to the females. The aim is to change the attitude and belief of the people, influence the psyche and eventually into abandoning FGM, which has been a challenging process (Shell-Duncan and Hernlund, 2000). NGOs have collaboratively worked with influential women’s group and leaders in the communities to educate them on the harm FGM causes and what the practice denies them as humans. Human rights agencies and activists use educated women/girls in the societies whom either were forced into or escaped circumcision as evidence against the beliefs of the community. Conclusion The research answered the thesis question as to what justifications does the supporting societies of FGM give, and which measures the African government/societies have taken to eradicate the prevalence problem in Africa. The findings from the discussion demonstrate that Some African communities practice FGM as an interpreted religious obligation, condition for marriage, a tradition passed down generations, physical and spiritual purification beliefs and control of female sexual desire. The government, NGOs, communities and religious leaders, activists and international organization have in various ways collaborated to end FGM in Africa. Some of the measures already in place are government enactment and enforcement of anti-FGM laws, institutions and funding of safe shelter for FGM escapees, campaigns and education to the communities. References African arguments, 2013. Eliminating female genital mutilation Globally: Recent Success and Challenges. Retrieved from http://africanarguments.org/2013/02/06/eliminating-female-genital-mutilation-globally-recent-successes-and-challenges/ African Women’s Organization. 2003. The Other face of FGM: Moral and Social Elements. Retrieved from http://www.african-women.org/documents/other-face-of-FGM.pdf Asmani, I.L., and Abdi, M.S. (2008).De-Linking Female genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam. Retrieved from http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/De-linking%20FGM%20from%20Islam%20final%20report.pdf Duncan, B., and Hernlund, Y. (2000). Female "circumcision" in Africa: Culture, controversy, and change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers Equality now. 2011. Protecting Girls from Undergoing Female Genital Mutilation: The Experience of Working with Maasai Communities in Kenya and Tanzania. Retrieved from http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting%20Girls_FGM_Kenya_Tanzania.pdf Hoffmanns, N. (2013). Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt. Global Journal of Medicine and Public Health 2(3): pp. 1-5. Retrieved from http://www.gjmedph.org/uploads/r3-vo2no3.pdf McGee, S. Female Circumcision in Africa: Procedures, Rationales, Solutions and the Road to Recovery. Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice, 11(1):pp. 133-150. http://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1155&context=crsj PRB. (2010). Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Data and Trends. Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/pdf10/fgm-wallchart2010.pdf Vestbostad, E., and Blystad, A. (2014). Reflections on Female Circumcision Discourse in Hargeysa, Somaliland: Purified or Mutilated? African Journal of Reproductive Health, 18(2): pp. 22-35. Retrieved from http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?rh14022 WHO. (2008). Eliminating female genital mutilation: an interagency statement UNAIDS, UNDP, UNECA, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNHCHR, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO. Retrieved from. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw52/statements_missions/Interagency_Statement_on_Eliminating_FGM.pdf WHO. (2015). Female Genital Mutilation and other Harmful Practices. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/ending_fgm/en/ Read More