African Women Suffering from Stigma and Discrimination - Term Paper Example

?AIDS: African Women Suffering From Stigma and Discrimination Introduction One of the most significant issues in the modern society and anthropology is the continuous widespread of AIDS in Africa. Some say that the true face of this sexually contagious disease is that of African women--about three-quarters of all HIV positive Africans with the age range 15 to 24 are women (Annan 2002). They are believed to be stigmatized, which further causes the society to toss up their discrimination against these disease-afflicted Africans. Thus, women subordination in the African society continues to prevail. Historically, African women were forced to sell themselves off because they needed money for their basic needs, i.e. food, clothes, etc. Soon enough, however, they are not only confronted with economic distress alone but also with an insurmountable social disaster. Apparently, two of the most prevalent social issues they are facing are stigmatization and discrimination. These issues are evident in a study about the women in Nigeria. This paper argues that these two social issues--stigmatization and discrimination--are the top reasons why AIDS survives up until the 20th century and beyond. Even so, both social issues worsen the problem of AIDS in Africa. Lastly, this paper suggests that if the government and other interventionists alike are really serious with their aim of eliminating AIDS in Africa, they should first gear their efforts on eliminating these two social issues. AIDS as a Social Construct Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or AIDS is a condition brought about by HIV infection. As the disease’s name suggests, the HIV infection would make the body’s immune system deficient, making it more susceptible for other infections that may potentially compromise body functioning (Stolley and Glass 2009, 5). However, beyond this scientific definition, AIDS became known as a more complex problem. In a study by Keniston (1989, 2), he revealed that AIDS resonates problems in public health, politics, psychological processes, education, as well as issues regarding public attitude and morals. Moreover, Keniston (1989, 2) pointed out that AIDS is more of a social construct than a biological one. To date, it seems that the same still holds true. First and foremost, the spread of the virus is enacted within the sexual behavior of two individuals--clearly a social interaction. Second, cultural and social structures help shape and condition the behaviors and interactions that further spread AIDS (Keniston 1989, 2). For instance, the African society’s poverty prods women to engage in sexual trades, thereby, perpetrating the disease. Lastly, societal notions regarding AIDS give rise to the concepts of stigma and discrimination, which contribute to oppression towards African women as well as to the worsening of Africa’s problem on AIDS. Stigma and Discrimination Stigmatization Defined In ancient times, stigma is a Greek term used to symbolize the mark on the flesh of a scandalous character, “a traitor, criminal, or slave” (Harvey 2001, quoted in Akanbi 2010, 3209). Additionally, a famous definition states that stigma is characterized as a “discrediting within a particular social interaction, as a spoiled social identity and a deviation from the attributes considered normal and acceptable by society” (Harvey et al. 2001, quoted in Akanbi 2010, 3209). Interestingly, a study made by Inside-Out Research (2003, quoted in Akanbi 2010, 3209) regarding South Africa, provides a two-fold definition of stigma: (1) internal stigma, an internal remorse that further makes the victim hide her condition, thereby, declining assistance and access to resources, and (2) enacted or external stigma, which implies discrimination and society’s fear of association with a person who has HIV or AIDS. Factors That Brought Stigmatization A study asserts that certain natural and socio-demographic factors influence HIV/AIDS stigmatization and discrimination among women in Lagos State, Nigeria. Among these factors are related to what Liz Walker refers to as “stigmatization by association,” i.e. negative approach of society to HIV/AIDS victims (Walker 2007, 79). This type of stigmatization is embodied through verbal harassment, gossip, and rejection (Akanbi 2010, 3209). Nonetheless, actions which lead to this stigma are not justified because they are only based on negative assumptions, e.g. that HIV is contagious through air despite evidence that it is only contagious through fluids. Effects True to the aforementioned definitions and of Alonzo and Reynolds (quoted in Akanbi 2010, 3209), stigma is indeed “a powerful and discrediting social label that radically changes the way individuals view themselves and are viewed as persons.” Definitely, it changes how women look upon themselves as they confront issues that undermine their whole being. In effect, they would not open their condition and continue to engage unprotected sexual relations. How Stigmatization Worsens Problem Women engaging in unprotected sexual relations would perpetrate AIDS—which explains why this disease still survived through the 20th century. A concrete scenario is that of Mrs. Mwasi, who was found to be infected with HIV--virus that causes AIDS and was left by his husband (Fleshman 2004, 6). Out of her fear of becoming an outcast in her community, she hid her condition from them. This shows that while women are inherently treated very poorly in society, they are dampened even more as they encounter society’s fear to associate with victims like them. Finally, stigma leads to discrimination, which could further lead to loss of employment, family estrangement, and increased risk of violence (Akanbi 2010, 3209). Discrimination Factors That Brought Discrimination Gender discrimination in African societies is brought about by several factors such as colonization, political factors, and economic preference for men. These factors influence the social and physical welfare of African women in the 20th century. Also, discrimination contributes to the increasing mortality rates of women as well as the increasing HIV infection rates (Fleshman 2004, 6). Colonization Colonization is one of the factors that caused the plight of African women because the patriarchal traditions of the colonizers are passed on to its African colonies. As colonizers occupied the African continent, they brought with them the idea of gender supremacy. During the colonization period, the male gender enjoyed his ultimate social, political, and economic power as he is the one recognized as the leader. This colonial legacy lived in African culture, and its effects are apparent in the sense that there is a noticeable gap between African men and women. In addition, the idea of gender supremacy creates a social problem that confronts Africa nowadays. In African patriarchal societies, the male gender enjoys more privileges than their female counterparts. They hold the highest positions in the government while women are reduced to submissive wives and daughters. Political Factors As Africa adapts the patriarchal society of its colonizers, male leaders are considered more efficient, and they hold the highest position both in the government and in their individual household. This male preference is one of the reasons why women cannot hold government positions and participate in political activities (Gupta 2000, 5-6). In the political context, discrimination affects women in a way that they do not have the right to hold government positions, more so in participating in social and political events such as elections and conventions. As men are considered as the stronger and more productive sex, they receive more opportunities than women, and they are provided with education. For the reason that women are deprived of education (formal or informal), they are considered as second class citizens, and they do not have the chance to pursue their own plans. Gender Stereotyping African society has well defined rules on gender roles. Responsibilities are distributed between the male and female sexes with the female receiving more responsibilities and less privilege. Women are assigned to take charge of the domestic responsibilities, while men maintain an active role in society. For the reason that women are confined in the household, their access to intellectual resources is limited leaving them illiterate. Being unable to attain intellectual and social success, women are, oftentimes, victims of domestic violence, physical abuse, and marginalization. As men govern the society, women are afraid to voice out their concerns, and they are left to suffer the abuses in silence. In this situation, it can be said that gender discrimination not only affects the emotional status of women but also their physical welfare. Effects of Discrimination Gender Inequalities Gender-based discrimination affects the economy of African countries as well as the health of citizens (Okumu 2004, 8). The discrimination experienced by African women affects their life in many ways including their rights as citizens. Aside from being deprived of their rights, women are more susceptible to HIV diseases as they are sexually abused. Should African society fail to acknowledge the silent half of its population, the women, it may put to risk the cooperation of women groups. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights promotes the principle of equality of rights, included therein is the right of every citizen, whether male or female, to enjoy his/her freedom of expression. Discrimination also encourages women activism, which is also socially damaging as it disrupts the daily operation of the government. Furthermore, human rights advocates and feminists initiate activities that are geared toward the empowerment of women in society. Domestic Violence Domestic violence, one of the adverse effects of discrimination, is a violation of the human rights of women (Turmen 2003, 412-413). For the reason that women are treated as second-class citizens, they are exploited emotionally and physically. Women, due to their physical weakness, are victims of sexual abuse. For instance, the increasing mortality rates of women in Africa are attributed to sexual abuses and unattended diseases. Additionally, the most common causes of women’s death are the sexual violence by their sexual partner, relative, and acquaintance (Shisana 2004, 7). Furthermore, the spread of HIV is attributable to gender discrimination as women are, oftentimes, victims of exploitation and sexual abuse. How Discrimination Worsens The Problem Discrimination against women is one of the causes contributing to the soaring HIV infection rates in sub-Saharan Africa (USAID 2011). In Lesotho, for instance, sexual violence is the main cause of the spread of HIV as one in five women reports to have been sexually abused. For the reason that women have fears of being ostracized, those sexually abused women keep the act secret (Skinner and Mfecane 2004, 159). Physiologically, the biological make up of women is more susceptible to contracting HIV than men. Hence, when women are sexually abused HIV diseases are easily transferred to them. In this case, it can be said that women should receive more medical attention as their bodies are more prone to HIV diseases. Should the African government fail to provide efficient health care services to women and promote the welfare of women in society, the rate of HIV spread would increase giving the government more social problems to deal with. Additionally, the increasing HIV infection rate hinders the achievement of development goals. In this sense, it can be said that AIDS-infected Africans, regardless of gender should be treated to prevent the accelerated spread of HIV diseases due to lack of health services. Essentially, discrimination against women is a destructive social practice that needs government attention. Raising the awareness of both sexes with regard to the causes and effects of HIV diseases would be an effective way to alleviate the plight of African women, especially those who are infected with HIV due to sexual abuse. Government Intervention Keniston’s (1989, 7) study argues that using biomedical approach in trying to eliminate AIDS may not be a quick and realistic solution. As a matter of fact, biomedical solutions, e.g. hospitals, research, publications, etc., are still far-fetched from lessening the number of cases or from stopping the spread of the HIV. After all, these actions are neglecting where the real problem subsides--on the social construct of African society. Consequently, government and private institutions alike should first look into ways that would eventually eradicate the stigma and discrimination towards African women. Interventionists should seek to closely monitor the development on the Resolution on Gender and HIV/AIDS, which empowers HIV/AIDS women and girl victims to combat against discrimination and stigma (Lewis 2004). In addition, education could be used to correct the wrong notions against HIV/AIDS as well as to reduce the vulnerability of women and girls from the ridicule of societal condemnation. Conclusion Throughout the paper, it is evident that AIDS is not only a physical problem but more so, a social problem that continues to corrode the dignity of African women. Apparently, there are certain social biases towards the diseases that people acquire; people tend to consider other contagious diseases more acceptable compared to a disease acquired through sexual interaction. For instance, AH1N1 virus was known to have some similar effects to AIDS: attacks the immune system, able to weaken the body, and later causes a person’s eventual death. Nonetheless, unlike AIDS, AH1N1 virus was eradicated much faster--AH1N1 cases almost completely unheard of in a short span of time since its outbreak. This must have been ironic because AIDS was discovered as a disease way much earlier than AH1N1, and that, billions worth of research studies and experiments have already been allotted to finally find the cure for the disease. But still, quite obviously, cure for AIDS is yet to be discovered. Nevertheless, ironic as it seems, one thing cannot be denied then: this phenomenon is not a coincidence or a sheer random event. The perpetration of AIDS was brought about by the social biases--stigmatization and discrimination--two powerful forces that shape the faces of victims in Africa. This accentuates the frailty of women and once again, the dominance of men. Unless government acts upon the social destruction it creates, AIDS as a social problem will continue to permeate the society. 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Lewis, Stephen. 2004. “Resolution on Gender and HIV/AIDS.” In The Fourth World Congress of Education International, Meeting Held in Porto Alegre, Brazil, 22- 26 July 2004. Okumu, Mary. 2004. “The Critical Issues: Gender-Based Violence in Africa.” The Sexuality in Africa, Vol. 1. Issue 3. http://www.arsrc.org/downloads/sia/sep04/sep04.pdf. Shisana, O. 2004. “Gender and HIV/AIDS: Focus on Southern Africa.” Paper presented at International Institute on Gender and HIV/AIDS, South Africa, June 7. http://www.hsrc.ac.za/Document-50.phtml. Skinner, Donald and Sakhumzi Mfecane. 2004. “Stigma, Discrimination And The Implications For People Living with HIV/AIDS in South Africa.” Journal des Aspects Sociaux du VIH/SIDA 1 (3): 157-164. Stolley, Kathy, and John Glass. 2009. Health and Medical Issues Today. USA: ABC-CLIO. Turmen, T. 2003. “Gender and HIV/AIDS.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 82: 411-418. USAID. 2011. HIV/AIDS Health Profile Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC, USA: The Author. http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/Countries/ africa/hiv_summary_africa.pdf. Walker, Liz. 2007. “Challenging Stigma by Association.” In Social Work and Disadvantage: Addressing the Roots of Stigma through Association, eds. Peter Burke and Jonathan Parker, 79-84. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley. Read More