An Experiential Anthropology - Dissertation Example

? Multiple Essay questions Multiple Essay questions Introduction Anthropology is essentially the study of humanity, since it speaks of all the characteristics of human experience. This means the capsulation of physiology, evolutionary origins, and cultural or social organization of societies and individual human experiences among others. Post modern theories of anthropology strongly influence socio-cultural anthropology, resulting in increased concentration on modern societies. This paper will examine various areas under anthropology, describing distinct aspects of human experiences under anthropology with the help of examples. Anthropology has high merit with regard to the description of mankind and his experiences. Fields of anthropology There are four distinct sub-fields in anthropology, each with additional sub-branches. These are social, cultural, biological or physical, and linguistic anthropology. While the four sub-fields overlap frequently, they all use different techniques and methodologies. Cultural anthropology or socio-cultural anthropology is the study of culture (Delaney, 2004). Cultural anthropology centers on ethnography, which refers to either the methodology or the product of research i.e. a book or monograph. Ethnography is largely inductive, relying on participant observation. Under cultural anthropology lies the ethnology technique that focuses on the systematic comparison of various cultures. Ethnography utilizes the process of participant-observation. Cultural anthropology focuses on the study of kinship and covers other areas such as political and economic organization, conflict resolution and law, consumption patterns, technology, material culture, infrastructure, ethnicity, gender relations, religion, myth, socialization, values, etiquette, language, festivals, recreation, and sports among others. Biological or physical anthropology, on the other hand, refers to anthropological research centered on the examination of human and non-human primates within their evolutionary, demographic, and biological dimensions. In essence, biological anthropology examines the social and biological influencers of evolution of mankind and primates which create, sustain, or alter physiological and genetic variations. Biological anthropology involves the study of primatology, which involves the examination of non-humans within their geographical environments to learn about the abilities and behavioral patterns of primates (Delaney, 2004). Biological anthropology also involves the study of human biology, which involves examining human diversity, non-cultural adaptations with regard to environmental elements, and genetic inheritance patterns. Archaeological anthropology refers to the examination of human records by examining its artifacts. This study involves the examination of material remains of human beings to discover how people lived. For instance, pieces of artifacts like tools and pottery provide evidence of cultural and social lives of past societies. Archaeological anthropologists are typically detectives who uncover evidence through excavating, dating, and analyzing material remains of past societies. This means archaeologists have a deep comprehension of the expansion of human civilizations and societies by analyzing human ancestors. Linguistic anthropology or anthropological linguistics aims at understanding the development of human communication, language variations through space and time, verbal and non-verbal communication, social functions of language, and the link between culture and language. Linguistic anthropology links linguistic analysis and methods to the interpretation of socio-cultural processes. In order to do this, linguistic anthropologists draw on fields such as cognitive linguistics, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, semiotics, narrative analysis, and pragmatics. The focus of linguistic anthropology lies in the study of the structure and purpose of language, physiology of speech, nonverbal communication, socio-cultural impacts on writing and speech, and the development of languages. Culture Anthropologists often use to the term culture to denote various aspects of patterns of human behavior. Anthropologists consider culture as the entire set of acquired or learned behavioral patterns in humans. This definition is attributable to anthropologist Edward Tylor who argued that culture is the complex entirety that encompasses among others human beliefs, knowledge, law, morals, art, customs, as well as other abilities and habits a human being acquires from being a member of society. Culture is an essential tool for human survival albeit a fragile phenomenon since it changes constantly and is easily lost because culture typically exists in people’s minds (Delaney, 2004). This means that tangible elements such as governments, languages, and buildings are merely products of culture. For instance, archaeologists cannot excavate culture; rather the artifacts they collect are a reflection of cultural patterns used through cultural skills and knowledge of past societies. Assimilation refers to the phenomenon in which people join a single culture. For instance, in tyrannical states in which citizens are forced to conform to a certain culture. Multiculturalism, on the other hand, refers to the phenomenon in which people adhere to uniquely comprehensive culture but maintain their individual cultures. For instance, American culture respects the cultures of different communities living in the US, like the Jewish, Hindu, Islamic, Chinese, Spanish, African, and Buddhist cultures are respected under the commonly shared American culture. However, from different cultural backgrounds, Americans have a shared and unique culture that encompasses attributes such as individualism, which upholds individuals rather than associations such as race, tribe, color or ethnicity. In America, individuals are valued for their contributions rather than associations to groups. This is exemplified through literary classics like The Color Purple and The Scarlet Letter that speak to the struggles of individuals. Americans also share the culture of capitalism since they believe in and take part in the capitalism economic system where individuals can accumulate and own wealth (Delaney, 2004). This cultural aspect underpins the respect endowed on wealthy individuals and downgrading of poor people. Furthermore, Americans uphold modernism, which means they believe in progress or in the notion that history advances in a linear motion towards greater things. This means that Americans prefer new things to old ones, the potential to the past, and modernization to tradition. Moreover, American culture encompasses religiosity as most Americans believe in the existence of a supreme deity who created the world watching over it and judges people for their actions. Americans typically mistrust pagans and ostracize them socially. What is more, Americans believe in secularism, which means that, in spite of American religiosity, American culture demands the strict distinction between state and church. American culture also encompasses consumerism in which what one buys or owns signifies his or her identity. Americans love goods with notable brand names whose style signify appreciation of current trends. American culture is also monolinguistic as the dominant language of communication in the US is American English. Therefore, inability to communicate in English impairs one’s capacity to succeed. Globalization The advent of technology continues to dissolve international boundaries, thereby, opening cultures to new arenas. This allows the occurrence of globalization (Delaney, 2004). The impact of globalization on cultural diversity is twofold, encompassing challenges and opportunities. With regard to the challenges of globalization, because of the exceptional access to cultures, a wider scope of the audience has a chance to experience phenomena than previously accessible. The dire consequences of such unmonitored access include stereotyping, misrepresentation, as well as the loss of cultural and intellectual property rights. In addition, the negative impacts of globalization on cultural diversity encompass the influence of multinational corporations that promote consumer culture, exploit workers and markets, and influence societal norms. Such increased presence of commercial products and media drowns out cultural influences. Furthermore, globalization results in the loss of individual and group identity. For instance, globalization encourages Western ideals with regard to individualism. Therefore, globalization advances homogeneity of beliefs and values such as the adoption of Western ideologies and cultures as seen through developed computer technologies. Since the most dominant present culture determines the next technology, commercial products, and the education system, dominant societies have an adverse impact on non-dominant cultures. Essentially, globalization advances colonization by impacting cultural rights, for instance, most people believe that, since cultural signs like rituals, dance, and songs are accessible, they are free for the taking. However, globalization is quite beneficial since it empowers cultures by allowing self-representation and information sharing. Since technology provides an avenue for sharing images and other forms of self-identity portrayals, globalization provides a means through which truism is achievable. In addition, global media platforms provide cultures a unique voice and avenue to promote awareness and grant public appreciation of cultural identities. Global media also enables the communication of commentaries on aspects important to the preservation of the culture and the acquisition of cultural means, thereby, retaining cultural diversity (Delaney, 2004). For instance, when cultures control their individual, public images, they are able to manage and depict their images correctly without misrepresentation. Such control also allows cultures to take charge of their signs, symbols, artifacts, and cultural property. Essentially, global media revitalizes and restores cultural preservations such as customs, culture, and language. Furthermore, global technology under globalization promotes the redefinition of collective identity. Global economic, social, and political networks empower cultural people, giving such people immense political and social power. Interpretive Drift Interpretive drift refers to the phenomenon involving slow, unconscious changes in a person’s interpretation of events as he or she engages in a certain activity. The process of interpretive drift involves changing beliefs after involvement in new activities. This emanates from shifting interpretations and adopting new theories as one learns and thinks about new events and theories via social or ritual contacts. The epitome of interpretive drift entails a person’s cognition of how new ideas apply to the real world. This occurs after noticing new patterns in phenomena and paying close attention to elements one previously ignored. This is perhaps the reason why interpretive drift is common because it involves the connection of events in human experiences (Delaney, 2004). This behavior is a dominant human characteristic as people seek patterns in their lives and environments. Anthropologists too are susceptible to interpretive drift since they encounter elements of different cultures and societies that influence their ways of thinking. Among anthropologists, all events are sufficient explanations of phenomena, and every fit is a discovery. In addition, anthropologists suffer from interpretive drift because when they discover something new, anthropologists believe that their beliefs remain unchanged while they discover something true. This means that anthropologists experience interpretive drift since they continually analyze human experiences. For instance, it is common for anthropologists to begin performing learnt rituals and gradually shift into the belief. After anthropologists accept the belief, they attempt to endorse it and critique any contradictory evidence. Anthropologists do this to deter the psychological disturbance of cognitive dissonance. Relationship between culture and language It is highly agreeable that culture and language are closely related. Anthropologists typically consider language as a verbal expression of culture since people use language to convey and maintain cultural ties. Language provides numerous categories for the expression of people’s thoughts; therefore, language influences people’s thinking. For instance, the language spoken in Japan focuses on the status of Japanese culture, and how such culture progressed over time. Culture denotes the beliefs, customs and ideas harbored by communities with distinct languages containing semantics (Delaney, 2004). For instance, in the Latin language, there is no word for a female friend of a man since the Roman culture does not consider the possibility of males and females being equals, which is a necessity for friendship. Since language denotes communication, which entails verbal, visual or semiotics, language is essential in the communication of ideas, beliefs, and customs from one member to another. Culture influences language since culture establishes new ideas, and develops new language elements to communicate such ideas. Conversely, language can also influence culture because the restrictions of a language have the capacity to define elements expressible in a culture. This means that the restrictions of a language can deter numerous elements from being part and parcel of a culture. However, language is not entirely defined by its developing culture since most modern languages constitute of amalgamation of their past and present forms. This means that most modern languages borrow expressions and words from other existing languages to express new concepts and ideas. For instance, the English language consists of up to 60% of words borrowed from other languages. Different ideas emerge from different uses of language in a culture. Everybody’s views are largely dependent on the culture that influenced them and described using language that has been shaped by that culture. The appreciation of culture and its people is augmented by the understanding of its language. Numerous theorists argue that while people may be brought up in similar behavioral or cultural backgrounds, if such people speak different languages, their perceptions will be different. Sapir-Whorf argues that using different languages creates different perceptions since the language one speaks limits his or her capacity to express ideas. Different languages create distinct limitations meaning that people with similar cultures but different languages are likely to have different perceptions and outlooks. Nonetheless, it is imperative to note that culture is the foundation of language while language reflects and conveys culture from one generation to another. Contribution of Anthropologists in solving human problems Previously, nearly all professional anthropologists worked in educational institutions. However, today, anthropologists work in full-time jobs through which they apply their knowledge of human experiences. Organizations employ anthropologists because they believe that anthropologists have sufficient skills to solve problems faced by human beings. Essentially, in order to solve human problems, anthropologists apply knowledge of all the subfields encompassed in anthropology. Nonetheless, the majority of anthropologists used to solve human problems have vast knowledge of cultural anthropology. Firstly, medical anthropologists investigate the intricate interactions between nutrition, social environments, human health, and cultural beliefs and practices. Medical anthropologists and epidemiologists coordinate to discover cultural practices and behaviors that impact the spread of diseases (Delaney, 2004). This is because people’s behaviors such as sexual habits, diets, and sanitation determine the transmission of pathogens. Different cultures hold distinctive ideas about the causes, symptoms and treatments of diseases, as well as the capabilities of traditional doctors and community involvement in healing. Medical anthropologists, therefore, study how humans perceive the aforementioned elements of health and provide pertinent information to hospitals and medical agencies to assist them deliver better health services. In addition, development anthropologists apply their skills to resolve human problems by providing information on societies, thereby enabling developmental agencies to tailor projects to the needs of local communities (Delaney, 2004). Development anthropologists provide knowledge regarding cultural conditions and local-level ecological conditions to policymakers. This ensures that projects steer away from unexpected problems, thus minimizing adverse effects. Lastly, educational anthropologists offer advice in bilingual education, conduct comprehensive observations of classroom interactions, train personnel on multicultural issues, and adapt teaching and instructional methods to local needs and customs. Furthermore, educational anthropologists help educators to appreciate the learning behaviors and styles of students from different racial, national, and ethnic backgrounds. This maintains holistic learning environments where students and teachers are comfortable. Marriage refers to a unique phenomenon that involves a social union or legal agreement between spouses, which, in turn, creates kinship. Anthropologists consider marriage as the description of how societies organize and conceptualize mating and its implications. People typically marry for an array of reasons including social, legal, spiritual, emotional, religious, and libidinal reasons among others (Delaney, 2004). However, the real meaning of marriage is derived from more than sexual intercourse, housekeeping, and procreation as it encompasses social expectations and sanctions. Because these expectations and constraints change from one culture to another, marriage also changes with them. There are four principal forms of marriage, i.e. monogamy, polyandry, polygyny, and group marriage. A monogamous marriage is one in which a person has a single spouse at any given time. Polygyny, on the other hand, refers to a form of marriage in which a husband has more than one wife, where the wives do not share a marriage bond. Polyandry refers to a form of marriage involving more than one husband sharing one wife, while the husbands do not share a marriage bond. Polyandry is illegal in most religions and nations, and is considered taboo. Conversely, group marriage refers to a version of polygamous marriage encompassing the marriage of more than one woman and more than one man. In group marriage, all parties share parental responsibility for all children born from the marriage. Among all the aforementioned forms of marriage, monogamy makes the most sense. Emic views refer to the description of behavior with regard to its meaningfulness to persons within a culture. Etic views refer to descriptions of beliefs and behaviors by persons outside the culture to attain cultural neutrality (Delaney, 2004). The emic view of monogamy holds that marriage is an institutional union that encompasses two people who are in love with each other. Monogamy is the epitome of ethical norms, making it the only means to achieve true human love. Numerous global religions such as Christianity uphold monogamy as the appropriate form of marriage. The Bible speaks of a man and a woman leaving their parents’ homes to unite in “holy” marriage. The etic view of monogamy holds that human monogamy emanates from the theory of evolution, and is innately similar to other animal-base or metazoan monogamy. Researchers argue that monogamy encompasses aspects such as social monogamy, which involves two individuals living together, collectively acquiring resources, and having sex with each other. Sexual monogamy denotes two partners who remain sexually exclusive to each other. Genetic monogamy, on the other hand, involves two individuals who come together for the sole purpose of procreating with each other. Lastly, marital monogamy entails the marriage of only two individuals. These views exemplify the fact that monogamy is the best option and the form of marriage that makes sense. Cultural relativism refers to the appreciation of other cultures and their unique beliefs. This doctrine appreciates that what appears normal to one culture may seem distasteful to another culture (Delaney, 2004). For instance, while Americans only keep dogs as pets, Chinese people eat dogs. Although Americans may consider the Chinese dog-eating culture distasteful, cultural relativism allows them to understand the Chinese and their beliefs. Ethnocentrism, on the other hand, refers to the belief that one’s country is the best or that one’s culture is superior to the rest. For instance, Americans have long been considered to believe their culture is superior to that of the rest of the world. The common practice of a wife assuming her husband’s family name points toward a unique belief in mainstream American kin practices. This common practice exemplifies the fact that Americans still consider the husband as in charge of the family unit making his name superior to that of the wife. In addition, American socialization entails the belief that when a woman gets married to a man, she should immediately surrender to the husband and at the same adopts her husband’s identity. This identity not only encompasses adopting the husband’s name but also will involve the wife’s assimilation into her husband’s culture. This is further exemplified through the Americanization of women from other ethnicities and cultures after marrying American husbands. The common practice of wives assuming their husbands’ names is a case of socialization. This is because American culture socializes them to believe that a wife should immediately forfeit her surname and adopt that of her husband’s family. This is done to ensure the wife achieves recognition as the man’s wife. In essence, Americans have been socialized to look down upon a wife who retains her birth name instead of adopting her husband’s family name. This exemplifies kin practices in America as assimilative towards wives who are considered inferior to men. On the other hand, such name change also shows American kin practices as acknowledging that a wife becomes the property of a man after their marriage. Anthropologists have long noted that societies create a bias toward collective violence through their actions and beliefs. While collective violence is nonexistent without culture, culture also deters or promotes collective violence. However, current societies deter collective violence (Delaney, 2004). Collective violence refers to a group of orchestration that relies on cultural socialization for its expression. Human existence has three essential requirements i.e. coordinated social deeds, the treatment of individuals as independent organisms and welfare and survival of groups. Cultures socialize their members of to function as solutions rather than problems with regard to these requirements. Members of certain cultures share mutual beliefs, expectations and values, particularly with regard to behavioral patterns, as well as the underlying meanings of behavior. These shared systems augment the communication of meaning, as well as the coordination of deeds among members of a culture. Societies create bias against collective violence by sharing values and cooperation. This means that when a society’s values include values that deter collective violence members of the society share such information amongst themselves thus deter the continuity or occurrence of collective violence. For instance, the majority of the American society disapproves abortion and seeks ways to ensure that abortion is illegalized. In addition, many societies value non-aggressive behavior since violence is considered immoral and disastrous. This is notable, especially through national laws that punish the perpetrators of violence against other human beings. For instance, it is common for courts of law to imprison persons guilty of acts of violence against others. In essence, societies such as nations advocate conflict resolution through amiable ways rather than violence or aggression. Furthermore, societies create dependence- based relations to deter the event of collective violence. The belief behind this tactic is that when people rely on one another and build harmonious relations, there is less likelihood of violence such as one group against another. For instance, since countries depend on one another for trade through exports and imports, such dependence deters the emergence of wars and conflicts. Lastly, societies create bias against collective violence by engaging in collective behavior that promotes harmony (Delaney, 2004). Churches and other religious institutions unanimously call for national and global harmony by preaching peace and togetherness. Religion plays an integral role in supporting culture and people. Firstly, religion is a catalyst for change amongst people and culture. Perhaps the most notable example is the obliteration of slavery and the slave trade. Religious groups such as Christians played an integral role in the abolition of slavery by preaching the doctrines of religion, for instance, the consideration of all people as equals, despite the color and race. In addition, religion preserves social traditions ideas since the aim of religion is the reinforcement of cultural norms. Religion does this by defining people’s deeds as either evil or noble. For instance, religion considers killing as evil thereby preserving social norms that also denounce murder. Through the definition of such actions as evil, religion deters people within a culture from engaging is these actions by citing dire, spiritual consequences. Furthermore, religion offers moral sanctions, values and common goals intended to help society maintain order. Religions accomplish this by attributing certain gods and spirits to certain behaviors. Gods and spirits play certain functions to control different aspects of members’ lives. For instance, people in ancient Chinese societies thought ancestral spirits protected them from harm as long as the people paid tribute to the spirits (Delaney, 2004). Ancient Chinese people believed that not honoring ancestral spirits would bring misfortune. Religion also plays an educative role since it passes down knowledge gathered from culture through oral traditions and rituals. For instance, religious rites of passage such as circumcision entail the passing of knowledge. Ethnography entails two distinct approaches, i.e. observation of life within the natural setting such as through fieldwork. This allows anthropologists to note the social processes, as well as historical moments, which are outside the express power of the people. In addition, data gathered through observation in people’s natural settings allows observers to appreciate social entailments. Ethnography also involves the analysis of data on social wellbeing and contextualizing such data. This method restores data to the original setting and to social processes and institutions. In essence, ethnographic methods provide entry into people’s social lives by exchanging ideas and providing social classifications. Conclusion Anthropology continues to influence people’s lives by providing cultural understanding. In addition, anthropology appreciates human experiences, providing knowledge of aspects that shape human life and existence (Delaney, 2004). The different sub-fields of anthropology provide different scopes of knowledge with regard to human existence. This paper has examined different aspects of human experience such as culture, marriage, and globalization among others. Anthropology focuses mainly on culture, arguing that people’s cultures dictate their values and behavior. Reference Delaney, C. (2004). Investigating culture: An experiential introduction to anthropology. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. Read More