Plant Biosecurity - Coursework Example

Plant Biosecurity Plant Biosecurity Introduction Plants are currently at higher threats than before due to continuous and speed with which plants and other materials move across the world. Plants’ biosecurity threats increase is due to globalised trade and travel. During the movements of the plants or other materials, pathogens and other organisms that are harmful to plants also spread due to movement of infected crops or their materials. Facilitation of these movements comes from the formation of the trade organisations that allow free movement of goods. These stresses may further favour establishment of exotic pests in a region. At the same time, climate change may influence the previous benign pests to develop and cause dangerous impacts on plants. Measures to cab these risks cannot be completely successful without the cooperation of the exporter, biosecurity authority and the importer together with controlling general factors that stress plants. The need to control these threats to plant biosecurity has facilitated the formation of agreements such as Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS) by the World Trade Organisation (WTO) countries. The main purpose of SPS in biosecurity is to assess risks using scientific evidences and analysis. In assessing the risk, parties involved will be able to reduce the spread of the pests across different regions. These measures sometimes include quarantine where crops from an area remain not allowed to leave the area. Threats to plant biosecurity affect both agriculture and economy at all levels. Internationally accepted principle in the pests management require ‘no risk’ policy that not possible to attain (MacDiarmid, Rodoni, Melcher, Ochoa-Corona & Roossinck, 2013). Threat to plant biosecurity remains a challenge even after agreements indicating need for more actions mainly to reduce risks involved. Overview Biosecurity Biosecurity involves the prevention, response and recovery from threats caused by pathogens and pests in plants and animals (Hinchliffe, Allen, Lavau, Bingham & Carter, 2013). Further categorisation lead to plant biosecurity dealing with plants and animal biosecurity dealing with animals. Various governments such as that of Australian maintain high effort in prevention, response and recovery from diseases and pests that may threaten their economy. Dealing with these threats involves governments at all levels together with non-government agencies (Nelson, Roffey, McNevin, Lennard, and Gahan, 2014). The new encounters with dangerous pathogens such as Nipha virus make governments invest more in prevention of their spread. Hence, biosecurity promotes general wellbeing of plants and animals with a focus on environmental protection. Biosecurity is necessary for sustenance of both country and international economy. If a country’s produce contains pests, contaminants and diseases, then importing countries may reject the products causing economic loss to both involved countries. Ensuring that agricultural produce remains uninfected is also vital in keeping the people healthy. In attaining proper public health, biosecurity ensures the pathogens do not spread to other regions and people do not consume the infectious products. Formation of policies and having measures in place has a significant influence in controlling pathogens. Without these measures, there will be high infection rate to human from pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli from the food processed in primary industries. In addition, by maintaining high levels of alert, authorities responsible can protect the natural flora and fauna in protection of the environment. All these factors are important in taking care of to have a prosperous economy (Nelson, Roffey, McNevin, Lennard, and Gahan, 2014). Biosecurity in Agriculture Biosecurity is a concept that promotes sustainable agriculture and ensures the overall safety of the society with proper environmental protection. It involves an approach that encompasses making policies and regulation aimed at reducing risks of pests and diseases amongst plant and animals (Waage and Mumford, 2008). Plant biosecurity sets out to protect plants from pests and diseases through invasion of exotic pests and plants in a particular region. Different regions have their sets of policies regulating various practices with the aim of controlling the spread of plant diseases and pests. However, there is a standard set at the international level. An example is Western Australia adoption of the biosecurity continuum in protection against plant pests and diseases in the region. The biosecurity continuum deals with pre-border preparedness and control of pests at the borders and within the borders (Jarrad, Low, & Mengersen, 2015). Other government such as those of Scottish and Welsh put more priority on plant protection in a number of ways including increase of research funds. All these governments safeguard plant biosecurity (Gordh and McKirdy, 2013) while at the same time advocating sustainable economic growth by the provision of necessary resources. In carrying out the measure and formulating policies, relevant authorities ensure agricultural practices are sustainable and plants are safe. Effects of Pests animal on plants Pest animal are animal species that occur beyond their natural range with effects on social and environmental systems (Hill, 2008). They include a number of species that vary from mammals to even insects that attack plants. They may also have effects on native animals resulting in food competition and damages to the ecosystem of a region. Pest animals have a number of effects on the plant health and survival. The effects are evident in a number of capacities including economy, health and general environment. The effects on plants range from minor injuries, transmission of diseases to causing plant death. In the recent past, pest animals have spread to various areas including Highlands due to warming of the climate. These temperatures favour the pests from warmer areas that could not inhabit these colder regions in the past. Trans-boundary plant pests cause significant losses to farmers with possibility of threats to food security in the region. These pests can cross to various places and affect a large area. Examples of trans-boundary pests include locusts and armyworms that have devastating effects on plants and require control by governments (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). Plants Biosecurity assist in formation of strategies for avoiding and recovering from animal pests’ effects. The authorities responsible for preventing these effects supply the necessary support in carrying out research and analysis. Transmit Diseases Various pests act as vector to pathogens of diseases that attack plants. When the pest feeds on the plant, the disease pathogen gets into the plant from the pests body (Rathé et al., 2014). Transmission through vectors is the most common way in which most of the plant viral diseases transmission. When there is a lack of proper scrutiny of the plants, these diseases can affect a large area. An example of this pest is Homalodisca vitripennis (Germar), which is an invasive pest for over 100 plants. These pests transmit the bacteria, Xylella fastidiosa that is a causative pathogen of many crops diseases (Rathé et al., 2014). Transfer of the disease is not the primary aim of Germar that feeds on the xylem sap, but the bacteria find it suitable for transfers due to feeding habits and morphology. The Germar has a polyphagous feeding habit enabling it to attack a wide range of plants including citrus, grapes and peach. These insect pests form a vector system for transmission of plant diseases. Other pests transmit a number of pathogen including viruses, viroid and other bacteria. Thrips is one the vectors which has a complex relationship with two most common viruses affecting greenhouse plants. Complexity in their relationship emanates from only the ability of juvenile larvae of the insect to acquire the viruses and not adults. The viruses are from the tospoviruses family with one (INSV) affecting ornamental and the other (TSWV) in vegetable crops. These virus diseases cause the death of these plants limiting growth and spread of these plants (Mathews, 2012). The insect causes danger to affected plants and its invasion into other areas increases the danger. Most of these diseases can only pass to other plants through specific vectors. Cause injuries and death or reduce produce All plant pests cause injuries to the plant through sucking or eating part of the plant as their food. The injuries cause plants to lose nutrients through sap leakage. Locusts are common pests to plant with no serious threat if their numbers are limited (Mathews, 2012). However, if the numbers of locusts become high, they usually cause massive damage to plants. Desert locust can migrate across the continents and are threats to one-tenth of the world population. These locusts form a great threat to farmers in Africa and parts of Asia (Shamilov, 2012). The damages do not spare farm crops where farmers suffer big economic losses due to poor or no harvest. FAO currently monitor the locusts and can provide early warning to respective countries to act appropriately. Some pests like the armyworm kill the plants at tender ages reducing population of the plant species under attack. Some of the pests like weevils target the seeds of the plants. In case they attack any wild plant, chance of the plant remaining dispersed successfully through natural means become limited. The effects of these pests become critical if they remain allowed to spread without any control. In pests, such weevils cause serious damages to grains of maize while at the same time reducing the nutritive value of the produce. In some cases, they make produce become inedible hence the farmer has to dispose of the produce. These pests in turn affect the economy status of the farmer and region at large. Climate changes have favoured the spread of some animal pests to areas they were not living in before. The climate change mainly accompanies the rise in temperature enabling various pest species to migrate to Highlands. Temperature rise affects the crops even further by attacking them in regions where there were no pests before. Before 2005, Russia uses methyl bromide for disinfection of quarantined plants with pests and diseases but its discontinuation is due to effects on the ozone layer (Shamilov, 2012). Biosecurity implication of weeds Definition of a weed is any invasive plant that has ability to cause damages to the existing ecosystem and agriculture (Hulme, 2012). This definition of weeds does not limit them to farms only but covers even invading plant in the forests. They form a potential threat to the native species through continuous competition for limited resources. These actions of weeds may lead to extinction of the native plant. Weeds also cause farmers to incur extra expenses while trying to manage them. Facilitation of the spread of these weeds comes from produce movements with some carrying the weed seeds and lack of proper inspection of the crop produce. They have facilitated formation of three ways of risk assessment, which include qualitative expert assessment, semi-quantitative scoring and qualitative statistical models (Hulme, 2012). Various authorities take measures to cab the spread of these weeds through a variety of means. These measures include but not limited to quarantine, research, funding and formation of policies. Australia and New Zealand have been at the forefront in research related to plant biosecurity especially the weeds due to higher number of plants imported in the countries (Shamilov, 2012). Weeds cause higher risk to farmers since they are responsible for their farms prosperity. The invasion of an exotic plant usually comes through importation of the plant or plant materials. However, the weed plant may need climate change in order to survive in a region. The global climate change has often favoured the establishment of weeds from other places. The risks from weeds to farmers are mainly from the reduction of produce and quarantine from authorities. Quarantine involves authorities giving directions to the movement of the plant with a particular infected region not having any plant moving out. It is both preventive and management measure by the relevant authorities in control weed invasions (Shamilov, 2012). In the preventive segment, relevant authorities may hold an imported plant for the study whether it can cause negative effects to native plants. During this period, there is checking on the possibility of carrying dangerous diseases significantly. This common in labs and usually does not involve the public. This type of quarantine is important in the prevention of diseases and weeds from crossing borders. Quarantine is mainly common in the weeds management systems. Under problem management system, the public are usually involved. Farmers are not allowed to sell their produce due to the presence of dangerous invasive weeds in their region. There will be containment of the weed in the region for to allow further actions from relevant authorities. The affected farmers will suffer from economic loss, but the step is necessary for preventing regional farmers’ loss that is greater. Quarantine assists in the management of an already existing threat from the weeds (Jarrad, Low and Mengersen, 2015). . The advent of knowledge about plant biosecurity accompanies an increase in research and funding from the governments in these areas. Several states carry out assessment and research on new plant crossing their borders. Further investments are in the risk management system that involves the use of modern technology in risk detection. There is continuous new contact between plants and human being hence the need to carry out more research on the risk of these new plants to the native plants. Countries in committed in fighting the spread of weeds form policies and agreements among member states. Most of the weeds have adverse effects on crops in reducing the yields. These effects have consequences in affecting the economy of a region or country negatively. Spreading of the weeds to other regions causes greater economic losses to the country. Government understand consequences of weeds spreading hence lead in policies formations to prevent this problem. Checking of the products at the border is one of the strategies governments use in preventing the spread of the weeds. Further inspection of within the borders to note any weed is also important in limiting their spread (Brasier, 2008). Plant biosecurity and International Trade There are threats increase to biosecurity of plants due to development of trade systems and movement of plants and their products (Brasier, 2008). Plants face great threats from exotic plants and both invading and existing animal pests that offer competition for resources and provide a route for infection. Controlling these problems require the involvement of countries usually by putting various measures and agreement while trading. Universal agreements between countries in the formation of trade partners facilitate the movement of the plant and their materials across the borders and continents. These kinds of movements have made the threat to plant biosecurity become a globalised because of many contributing factors. International trade is the globalised system in which there is goods transportation across different continents without restriction between countries. This trade liberalization contributes to change in biosecurity in two ways. It has made importation of plant-related materials less expensive. Moreover, liberalisation has created the political agenda with World Trade Organisation (Waage and Mumford, 2008). These trades are important for the economy of countries and provide jobs to the individuals involved in the trading system. International trade facilitates the spread of plant diseases from different part of the world. The diseases may be from the spread of the pathogens across different regions. The vectors for these pathogens include pests and sometimes human. With the increase in volumes of products moved and the speed at which the products move. The invasive pathogens carried from different parts of the world affect the agricultural produce and affect the native plants. An example is Phytophthora cinnamomi that can affect more than 3000 species of plants continue to spread for the last 150 years from East Asia (Brasier, 2008). The pathogen has become a major threat to the plant communities in West Australia damaging forest. The international trade has led to exploitation of land in ways that are harmful to plant growth through agricultural practices. The need to make more money from limited land spaces contributes to unethical use of land. Most farmers see the opportunity in increasing profitability without considering the later implication on the crops and environments. In addition, deforestation to grow crops has become rampant in many places that have an effect on climate. Presence of pathogens in an area affects the possibility of plant products from that area leaving for use in other places. Authorities responsible react to the invasion by imposing quarantine, which affect the flow of produce. Quarantine is one of the justified measures in controlling plant pests and diseases. In imposing the quarantine, the economy of the region or country remains affected. Establishment of early risk detection has become vital in controlling the invasion of exotic pests and plants. The initial prevention of invasion to plant infections is the primary responsibility of National Plant Protection Organisation of every country (Colunga-Garcia, Haack, Magarey and Borchert, 2013). The SPS agreement of World Trade Organisation remained introduced in the year 1995 with the aim of fighting invasion. This agreement has rights and obligation of the countries involved. The duties of the countries are to ensure implementation of measures that have a basis on the international standards for ensuring prevention of entry of the pests and diseases with required justification (Lindgren, 2012). Conclusion In agricultural practices plant biosecurity defines the general standards at which individuals and authorities should take care of plants. Threats to plant biosecurity emanate from different factors including pest animals, weeds and climate changes. Animal pests alone can cause injury to plants and at the same time transmit disease-causing pathogen between plants (Mathews, 2012). The number of diseases transmitted is large with some not yet discovered. Injuries to plants can be devastating to a point of causing plant death. Weeds on the other hand compete with crops for resources reducing their productivity and profitability. International trade has influence in the spread of the pests, weeds and diseases. Liberalisation of the trade among countries facilitates the spread of these pests, diseases and weeds across the globe (Brasier, 2008). All these activities and measures in plant biosecurity are important in public health, environment protection and having economic growth. References Brasier, C. M. (2008). The biosecurity threat to the UK and global environment from international trade in plants. Plant Pathology, 57(5), 792-808. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2008.01886.x Colunga-Garcia, M., Haack, R. A., Magarey, R. D., & Borchert, D. M. (2013). Understanding trade pathways to target biosecurity surveillance. Neobiota, (18), 103-118. doi:10.3897/neobiota.18.4019 Gordh, G & McKirdy, S. (2013). The Handbook of Plant Biosecurity: Principles and Practices for the Identification, Containment and Control of Organisms that Threaten Agriculture and the Environment Globally. (2014). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. Hill, D. S. (2008). Pests of crops in warmer climates and their control. London: Springer. Hinchliffe, S., Allen, J., Lavau, S., Bingham, N., & Carter, S. (2013). Biosecurity and the topologies of infected life: from borderlines to borderlands. Transactions Of The Institute Of British Geographers, 38(4), 531-543. doi:10.1111/j.1475-5661.2012.00538.x Hulme, P. E. (2012). Weed risk assessment: a way forward or a waste of time?. Journal Of Applied Ecology, 49(1), 10-19. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02069.x Jarrad, F., Low, C. S., & Mengersen, K. L. (2015). Biosecurity surveillance: Quantitative approaches. Wallingford, Oxfordshire: CAB International Lindgren, C. J. (2012). Biosecurity Policy and the Use of Geospatial Predictive Tools to Address Invasive Plants: Updating the Risk Analysis Toolbox. Risk Analysis: An International Journal, 32(1), 9-15. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01642.x MacDiarmid, R., Rodoni, B., Melcher, U., Ochoa-Corona, F., & Roossinck, M. (2013). Biosecurity Implications of New Technology and Discovery in Plant Virus Research. Plos Pathogens, 9(8), 1-5. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003337 Mathews, D. (2012). Disease Focus: Insect-transmitted plant virus diseases. UCFA News. Web. March 30, 2015. Retrieved from http://ucanr.edu/sites/UCNFAnews/Disease_Focus/DISEASE_FOCUS__Insect-transmitted_plant_virus_diseases_/ Nelson, M., Roffey, P., McNevin, D., Lennard, C., & Gahan, M. E. (2014). An overview of biosecurity in Australia. Australian Journal Of Forensic Sciences, 46(4), 383-396. Peshin, R., & Dhawan, A. K. (2009). Integrated pest management: Volume 2. Dordecht: Springer. Rathé, A. A., Pilkington, L. J., Hoddle, M. S., Spohr, L. J., Daugherty, M. P., & Gurr, G. M. (2014). Feeding and Development of the Glassy-Winged Sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis, on Australian Native Plant Species and Implications for Australian Biosecurity. Plos ONE, 9(3), 1-10. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090410 Shamilov, A. S. (2012). Quarantine disinfestation in Russia: past and present. EPPO Bulletin, 42(2), 176-180. doi:10.1111/epp.2554 Waage, J. & Mumford, J. (2008). Agricultural biosecurity. Philosophical Transactions Of The Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 363(1492), 863-876. Read More