Public Health and Storage of Natural Water - Research Paper Example

On – Site Water A Technical Report Table of Contents Introduction…………………………………………………………….. 3 2. Background……………………………………………………………… 3-4 3. Research & Discussions…………………………………………………. 4-13 3.1 Water Resources and Consumption Patterns in India…………………4-6 3.2 Status of Water availability in the Municipality Areas in India……… 6-8 3.3 Technology of Wastewater Treatment…………………………………8-10 3.3.1 Diagram 1………………………………………………………..9 3.4 Innovations in Water Supply and Technology………………………….10-12 3.4.1 Diagram 2…………………………………………………….10 3.4.2 Diagram 3……………………………………………………..11 3.5 Management of Water Supply………………………………… 12-13 4. Conclusion………………………………………………………………..13 On – Site Water Introduction Mother Nature has given us an abundance of resources to lead a healthy and long-lived life. Among the several resources gifted to us Water is one of the principal factors that govern life on this planet. The water resources in the modern day periods are facing huge constraints owing to factors like global warming, an influx in the rate of population growth and hazards like environmental pollution. In many regions rainfall has turned out to be quite erratic, for which farmers have to depend on irrigation schemes. Henceforth, these water resources need to be effectively used and properly managed to avoid water crisis in the near future. In context of developing and underdeveloped nations it is often seen that public supply of water is impaired by structural problems emerging within the social fabric. In order to rectify such malfunctioning in water distribution system that the governance of a host of public resources has been transferred to the hands of the private sector. The public resources transferred to private hands also stands for the transfer of water resources. Water Resources though are economic goods also have social values. In the light of changing environment and population growth water resources needs not only to be properly managed but also to be effectively organized for bettering up of life standards. (Ocal & Dogan, n.d.) Background To understand the problems arising from the mismanagement of water resources the paper tries to focus on water distribution and supply management in context of developing economies like India. The Indian economy has the potential to be an agrarian economy. In the last few decades the development of agriculture has helped to make India self sufficient in terms of food grains. The development of agriculture in the country can mostly be attributed to the development of irrigation activities. Public demand for water is not only restricted to agricultural activities. Rather, it is observed that the demand for water in non-agricultural framework is increasing rapidly. The water-laden regions of India can be categorized into 19 essential drainage basins, according to their per capita water supply. The demand for water also is seen varying by the side of these riverbeds. A statistics reveal that the valley of river Indus and Ganga share 48 percent of the total population of India. The water drawn from these sources is mainly used for agricultural purposes. (Amarasinghe, N.D., p. 6). It is in this light that the paper tends to highlight on points like the trends of water usage, demand for water in the municipality regions, the technology used for the treatment of the water and the effectiveness of water supply and distribution systems in the region. Research and Discussions Water shortage is an increasing phenomenon to be witnessed in several countries in the modern era. The water shortage is attributed to the supply and demand mechanisms of water in the society. It was observed that annual supply of water below 1000 cubic meter affects the health and economic well being of a region. Per capita availability of water below 500 cubic meters is regarded as a constraint to well-being of a community. (Seckler, Amarasinghe, Molden, de Silva, Barker, 1998, p. 2) In light of the above statement the scenario of water management in municipal areas of India is analyzed. Water Resources and Consumption Patterns in India The water resources in context of the Indian subcontinent can be divided into mainly three parts: Rainfall, Groundwater and Surface Water. The rainfall pattern in India is highly erratic in nature. A survey states that Cherrapunji, in Assam gets about 11,000mm of rainfall each year. On the contrary Jaisalmer in Rajasthan gets only about 200mm of rainfall annually. The average annual rainfall in India is recorded to be 1170mm, highlighting it to be one of the wettest countries in the world. In contrast the groundwater resources in India are reported to be 10 times the rainfall water content. A statistics revealed by the Central Groundwater Board of Government of India states that India has an annual figure of 26.5 million hectare- meters of groundwater resources to be harnessed. The groundwater resources in India are mainly used for irrigation purposes, which accounts for 85% of its usage. The groundwater resources also used for domestic purposes both in rural and urban areas. Around four-fifths of rural domestic water supply comes from groundwater while in urban and industrial regions it is half. In terms of surface water India has “14 major, 44 medium and 55 minor river basins” (Sampath, Kedarnath, Ramanujam, Haidery, Rao, Arunachalam, Govindaraju, Thirumalavan and Jeet, N.D., p. 2). It is observed that 91% of the total drainage system in India is covered by the major and medium river basins.. The water resources outlined above have multifarious uses like domestic use, irrigation, generation of power and catering to industrial demands. Water supply used for domestic purposes accounts for 5% of the total usage of water resources. A statistics states that around 7 cubic kilometer of surface water and 18 cubic kilometer of groundwater is used for water supply in rural and urban communities. The trend is deemed to change by the year 2050 for the rate of growth in population and shifts to urbanization. It is estimated that by 2050, 61% of the total population will dwell in the urban circle. The demand for water is expected to increase at the maximum to 111 cubic kilometer annually. The surface and groundwater resources are expected to meet 70% of urban and 30% of rural water needs by 2050. The irrigation system in India has had a far-flung change from 22.6 million hectares in 1950-51 to an estimated potential of 140 million hectares by 2025. The surface water would contribute to 76 million hectares while the groundwater to 64 million hectares. The total quantum of water used from ground and surface water resources amounted to 428 cubic kilometer in the last century. It is expected that by the year 2025 the total water requirement will increase to a maximum of 611 cubic kilometer which in turn will further increase to 628 cubic kilometer by 2050. India has a hydropower potential of 84,044 mega watts of power. It is stated that by the end of the twelfth five-year plan, India will generate an additional of 60,000 mega watts of hydroelectric power. (Kumar, Singh and Sharma, N.D., pp.799-800) Thus the need of the hour is to plan and develop various sized hydro projects for power generation. From the industrial standpoint the estimate stands at 15 cubic kilometer of water usage. The nuclear plants estimated use is about 19 cubic kilometer of water. In view of the same pace by the year 2050, the expected water requirement by industries will grow to 103 cubic kilometer of water. Steady use of water saving technology can lower down the need to 81 cubic kilometer in 2050. (Kumar, Singh and Sharma, N.D., pp.799-800) Status of Water availability in the Municipality Areas in India The availability of water in the municipal areas of India is in a delirious state. Water is only available for only 4 to 5 hours on a day basis in most Indian localities. The quality of the water available is also meager with poor water pressure. The water supply being inadequate with low pressure adds to problems of health and costs to the common masses. An estimate reveals that on average each household spends about Rs. 2000 annually to fight against the problem of water scarcity. The amount spent is calculated to be 5.5 times than that paid to the municipality. The water crisis has added to the financial burdens of the common households in forcing them to install water tanks, hand pumps and tube wells. The installation of water tanks makes it amenable for placement of booster pumps on the main line. It triggers a further reduction of pressure for which motors need to be installed along the main line for others to get water. Drinking water in these regions owing to low pressure and scarcity is not free from contamination. The main concern is that the main contributors of ground and surface water contamination in India are human and animal waste. A sample test conducted on water contamination in the state of Maharashtra show that 10% of the samples collected from various municipalities were impure, Mumbai municipality reporting to 14% pollution. A survey on water monitoring conducted by Clean India in January to March 2003 amongst 28 cities show that the groundwater in most areas surpassed the permissible limits of Fluoride, Ammonia and coarseness. A similar survey conducted in 20003 in 1000 locations in Kolkata reveal that 87 % of water reservoirs distributing water to residential areas and to 63% of tap water contained high level of contamination. The standard of water supply in India is found to be totally inefficient. The inefficiency can be traced from the fact that the amount of water produced does not optimally reach the masses. Reasons attributed to the above fact are leakages and illegal connections here and there which accounts for the menace. Unaccounted water owing to leaks and wrongful connections account for 25 to 40 percent of the total water produced in the urban context. Another contributing factor to the inefficient supply mechanism is the question of overstaffing. The ideal staffing rate per utility is 2 people for every 1000 connections. However, in the Asia-Pacific context it has turned out to be 12 people for every 1000 connections. Mumbai has recorded the highest staffing rate of 33 for every 1000 connections. Adding to the problem of over staffing is the menial quality of manpower involved. The staffs were found to be mostly unqualified to work in water projects. Owing to the above problems the municipalities cannot even cover operational and maintenance costs. Thus making any provision for expansion and improvement activities is to be taken as a dream. (McKenzie and Ray, N.D., pp. 4-5). The paper now moves on to address the technologies used to combat the growing menace water prone diseases and also on the development of supply mechanisms in India. Technology of Wastewater Treatment The question of a rapid growth in the urban population combined with water scarcity has put front the need for proper water management and treatment in urban areas. Little notice has been taken in the past to address issues on sewage and wastewater treatment. The growth in the urban populace has stirred the need for proper wastewater treatment to be carried on. An approach to sustainable treatment of wastewater is the decentralization of wastewater management. Decentralization involves making of smaller units devoted to catering individual houses, a group of small houses or a community. The sustainable wastewater treatment has different types like lagoons and wastewater treatment, anaerobic digestion and soil aquifer treatment. In lagoon and wetland management the chemical, physical and solar components of nature are brought together and applied for wastewater purification. In this treatment a number of low-depth ponds are assumed to be used for stabilizing the lagoons. Water hyacinth and duckweeds beneath the shallow ponds are used to block heavy metals while bacteria, plankton and algae are used to purify the water. The wetland treatment is gaining popularity in developing countries owing to factors like economic viability and self-sufficiency. The second treatment for wastewater is the anaerobic digestion. Here anaerobic bacteria are used to decompose organic materials in absence of oxygen and produce gases like methane and carbon dioxide. Methane, a byproduct in this treatment can be used as Biogas. The advantage of this treatment is that it is available for both big and small-scale measures. In respect to tropical climates the most suitable digester available is the Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) digester. It is mostly popular in urban context for factors like low cost, high efficiency in organic removal, simplicity and less infrastructural needs. The following diagram is of a UASB digester, which consists of a Gas Solid Separator for retaining the anaerobic sludge by separating gas from water and sludge, effluent and an influent pipe for delivering materials at the bottom of the reactor. Gas Solid Effluent Separator Gas Baffle Sludge Bucket Zone Influent Sludge Bed Zone (Volkmann, 2003., pp. 4-10). fig.1 The third type of wastewater treatment prevalent in developing countries is the Soil Aquifer Treatment. The Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) is essentially a soil purification system where the aquifers or unsaturated soil layers are recharged by partially treated sewage products. The effluent in this manner is additionally purified before being mingled with natural groundwater. The SAT treatment is popular for certain advantages like low cost, efficiency in removal of pathogens and the operation being not so technical in nature. The wastewaters being treated by the above methods contain essential chemicals for growth of plants. It contains elements like phosphorus, which is a scarce fossil mineral, and a key element in the recycling process. (Volkmann, 2003., pp. 4-10). Innovations in Water Supply and Technology The picture of water supply in urban India is quite bleak. A case study on Delhi shows that where the estimated water requirement is 4552.8 million litres per day, the city only receives 4109.57 litres on a day basis. This clearly shows that surface water can no longer meet the growing demand of the municipal areas. Hence, there is an increasing pressure on groundwater resources, which is also continually depleting by 0.4 metre per year. The hydrological balance being disturbed has made the wells to dry up leading to more investment on installation of pumps and deep tube wells. In this light the most promising solution is rainwater harvesting which targets at local water management. (Assessment of water supply options for Urban India, 1999., p.17). Rainwater harvesting as a technology involves collection and storing of water from rooftops or surface catchment areas by simple collection techniques and also by complex means. The prevalent rainwater harvesting techniques has three main components viz. catchment areas, collection device and conveyance systems. The catchment areas can be roof based or land surface based. The collection of water from the roof can be made through jars or by draining the water through pipes into specific reservoirs. The following is the diagrammatic presentation of rooftop catchment. Drainage Pipe Rooftop Storage Reservoir (An introduction to rainwater harvesting, N.D.) fig.2 The land surface to be used for rainwater catchment is a much easier option. The run off capacity of the land surface is bettered off by collection of rainwater through drainpipes and thereby storing it. As compared to the rooftop catchment land catchment provides access to a bigger area. The water flowing out of small crevices or streams can be collected in surface or underground reservoirs to be used in dry periods. The land can be cleared off vegetation and can be made sloppy for better run off. The diagram below presents the same. Earth Catchment Flow of water (Stone and sand filter) Underground Tank (An introduction to rainwater harvesting, N.D.) fig.3 The collection devices that can be used in this regard are storage tanks and rainfall water containers. The storage tanks can be placed either above or below the surface. Care must be taken for adequately covering it to be free from contamination. Types of tanks in common use are Ferrocement Tanks and Mortar Jars. The ferrocement tanks have a concrete base with a vertical cylinder having steel base. The mortar jars are big jar shaped containers made from wire. The rainfall water containers are made of ceramic, ferrocement or of polythene. The pottery or ferrocement jars are popular in Asian context. The conveyance systems reflect on the pipes used to drain the rainwater from the catchment areas to the reservoirs. Here, the first drain of water from roofs or land surface contains debris and dirt. To avoid the contamination down-pipe flap can be used. The down-pipe flap used drains the first water down the pipe while the subsequent rainfall is allowed to enter the storage tank. Rainwater harvesting thus is a low cost technique, which can be easily, incorporated in common households. However, it suffers greatly from the erratic nature of rainfall conditions in the country. (An introduction to rainwater harvesting, N.D.) Management of Water Supply Water supply left in Government hands led to inept management practices in supplying the required quantum of water to the masses. Hence, water management and control was given over to private hands. Some of the important examples of water privatization are Tiruppur in Tamil Nadu, Shivnath River, Chattisgarh and Degremont in New Delhi. The Delhi case shows that Delhi Jal Board in agreement with Degremont, a French company had installed a drinking water treatment plant in Sonia village. The contract awarded was of Rs. 2 billion, which is supposed to provide 635 million litres of water for drinking purpose on daily basis. The Delhi Jal Board is rendering all types of infrastructural facilities to Degremont. (Sampath, Kedarnath, Ramanujam,Haidery, Rao, Arunachalam, Govindaraju, Thirumalavan and Jeet, N.D. p-6). The water supply management can be further strengthened by meeting three objectives viz. creation of newer potential, maintaining an equitable distribution and achieving sustainable development. The 690 cubic kilometer of surface water resource to be optimally utilized requires an additional creation of 135 cubic kilometer of storage capacity. The second tactical focus is on equitable distribution of water resources among the rich and poor masses. The division of water among the river basins is highly erratic for which efforts can be made for inter-basin transfer of water. Sustainable development, the third focus needs to be taken for future development of resource management but not at the cost of present resources. The land resources need to be taken care off while developing the usage patterns of water resources. (Pillai and Maheshwari, N.D., pp. 162-166). Dams form an essential component of water storage technique. Several environmental concerns have been raised in this context, especially in the case of Narmada project. When measured in terms of human welfare these dams might even outdo the cost incorporated. (Seckler, Amarasinghe, Molden, de Silva, Barker, 1998, p. 16) Conclusion Water resources needs to be effectively managed to counter increasing demands both in the urban as well as in the rural sphere. Use of proper technology should be encouraged for promoting public health and storage of natural water base for contingency purposes. Government must look forward to joint venture assignments with private firms involving key projects, which will develop the living standards of the common masses. The urban society is growing at a faster pace with rapid manpower shifts. Thus usage of water resources for only irrigation purposes at the cost of community development activities should be curbed. Both the ground and surface water resources are found to be optimally exploited. Again, the rainfall pattern of the Indian subcontinent is highly erratic. Hence, an eye must be maintained on rainwater conservation for combating against the future demand for water. The municipalities must also take care of the staffing activities. The availability of excess staff does not help in bettering the quality of service. It only adds to operational costs and is seen to be an adjustment made on manpower quality. The equitable distribution of water resources must also be taken care off to avoid monopoly over such. Further, water resources needs to be developed but not at the cost of the existing resources. The treatment made on land resources for water conservation techniques to be adapted must be carefully looked into. Hence in total the community of a region or locality should grow with the growth in the total environment. References 1. Ocal, H. & Dogan, C. (N.D.). Economy of Water Resources. 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Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from: http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:Lg41Ww7eEdwJ:www.cee.mtu.edu/peacecorps/documents_july03/Wastewater_treatment_and_reuse_FINAL.pdf+sewage+treatment+in+india&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjcTq4mNqCuOfbF1iQNTfQnU4-U6OVEhoy-Wzb3nC_DMJa-_OcD1Ic4c_X9JCr2KmU7jgJfKyZI_SV-MRfV0xLPZc6rKYWa8yxIE2xl-6ymrgFsPzpa_IhU_3zJ5Qe3eLL7gupm&sig=AHIEtbT9hjH3CmYTcSLT5lFvWqyB5KPZAg 8. Assessment of Water Supply Options for Urban India – Large Dams have no Case, (1999). South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People. Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from: http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:Q_EmHuPHicEJ:www.sandrp.in/watersupply/urbnwtr_assess_wcd.pdf+distribution+mechanisms+of+water+supply+in+india&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjyrElLri-YYLC1Tz15oIJaZEx_OOzobm4QNKZ6rXA1p1xDLVXTetQMVGH1UyCdFqKQJq-NRPNteYX29AtR-nP_mX7GSGwTa1MM3mmTbSjmWrEPdhig75oNUEsdjOCt3BChb1zB&sig=AHIEtbRgMqIzA5ad1YZ3OjPfNOyzFJ55-w 9. An introduction to rainwater harvesting. (N.D.). Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from : http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/rainwater/introduction.html 10. Pillai, B. & Maheshwari, G. (N.D.). The Water Crisis in India: need for a balanced management approach. Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from: http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:LAq5oujnbucJ:bookstore.teriin.org/docs/journals/IJRG-Dec-01-Paper3.pdf+water+crisis+in+india+%2Bbalanced+management+approach&hl=en&gl=in&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESirGhVN3TgISN5Ao4B0CD4-Do9IujFXstq7bu_LP1fhb5sCy26WSxxDjcEVPJUiEVDRTwFlY1WWriDmx6ozxhnweBiUOAbwvAYv04r3A6GQwFJq5FWR7zXHYZG8EZi3ZMCCd_fK&sig=AHIEtbTlbYl630koU31-ycu6gm-nQj1H3w Read More