To what extent did French avant-garde groupings in the 1880s coalesce around exhibitions - Essay Example

?To what extent did French avant-garde groupings in the 1880s’ coalesce around exhibitions? Introduction As long ago as 1846, French Charles Baudelaire discussed the qualities proper to specifically modern art in his essay on the French Salon. Subsequent modernity revolutionised not only the style but also themes in art. With Baudelaire’s assistance, in 1862 Edouard Manet presented a combination of a contemporary social life and unconventional technique in ‘Concert in the Tuileries Gardens (Salinger 1957). This painting, despite being unconventional from art of that time, immensely influenced the establishment of a novel outlook. The phrase ‘modern art’ first used by Joris-Karl Huysmans in a book title to delineate the subject matter of several paintings represented in the book in1883. The Anglo-Irish novelist, George Moore followed this in this book, ‘Modern Painting’. It was about this time that the critic Theodore Duret, who used it of certain young painters, introduced the term avant-garde (Wood 1999, pp. 7-33). Subsequently, modernity became the focal point for artists and critics, alike. How Impressionism triggered avant-garde groupings The period of 1860-1880 witnessed an undeniable transformation in the aesthetic perspective as the focus of paintings shifted to the depiction of everyday reality and fashions (Wood 1999, p. 113). Determined to present illustrations of contemporary life in both, urban and rural areas, the Impressionists pioneered this change by creating snapshots of everyday life. The war developed new urgency and hope in the progressive artists born in the 1880s. There was unanimity amongst the generation that Europe had been endowed a second chance; Salinger 1957, 117 Wood 1999, pp. 28 Wood 1999, p. 113 thereby, a new order should be established (Hungerford 1989). Impressionism, a revolutionary movement in painting followed by music, emerged at the end of the nineteenth century in France. Impressionist paintings can be traced back to the period of 1867-1886 to a party of artists with common approaches, philosophies, and methodologies in art (Huyghe 1973, p. 90). They tried to translate their observations into the paintings by attempting to recreate the manifold and animated results of sunlight and shadows from direct and reflected light. One of the most integral development out of this style was the reproduction of objects out of discrete flecks and dabs of matching or contrasting colours to evoke the broken-hued marvels and distinguishing hued created by sunlight and its reflections (Callen 1982, p. 187). Lastly, conventional formal compositions were replaced by more casual and less artificial disposition of depicted objects. The Impressionists in portraying landscapes, houses, trees, and even urban streets employed these novel-painting techniques (Callen 2000, p. 245). As the mid 1880s approached, the Impressionists began to dissolve as every painter craved to pursue his personal aesthetic interests and principles. Nonetheless, in its short-lived existence, it categorically revolutionized art, paving the way for postimpressionist artists like Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat to be free from all traditional western paintings and methodologies and interpretation of subject matter. Aftermath Impressionism was the first avant-garde in art, which paved the way for contemporary or modern art. Undeniably, the impressionists motivated novel Hungerford 1989, 73 Huyghe, 1973, 90 Callen, 1982, 187 Callen, 2000, 245 approaches, perspectives, notions amongst subsequent artists (Ward 1996, p. 168). It was the result of their relentless struggle and perseverance, that the Salon’s official foothold in the world of art was questioned. Undoubtedly, painters such as Monet, Renoir, Pissaro, and Degas encouraged new art movements, for instance, Post-impressionism, Fauvism, Cubism (Rewald 1978, p. 312). In 1886, following the official death of Impressionists, post-impressionism was born. Before these movements, the Impressionists had already triumphantly conquered the generation comprised of sceptical critics. Although, it lasted for less than a decade; however, Impressionism had inspired successors to experiment with novel artistic techniques and expressions, as they had (Clayson 2002, p. 244). Avant-garde exhibitions After the end of the Franco-Prussian war of 1871, many aspiring artists returned to Paris to resume and pursue a career in art. However, the Official Salons were the chief authority in France that determined the success of any artists. They were strictly against the innovative Impressionists. The annual exhibition known as ‘the Salon’ gave preference to paintings that adhered to the conventional academic styles of history, spirituality, and mythology (Mainardi 1991). The jury of the Salon rejected shocking numbers of impressionist work as they depicted the contemporary Parisian life. Thus, the Impressionists established their own art society named the ‘Salon d’Refuses’ to counter the official Salons. This society enabled independent impressionist artists to display their paintings and receive the much-deserved admiration that Salons did not give. The founders included Degas, Pissaro, Renoir, Sisley, and Berthe Morisot. The avant- Ward, 1996, 168 Rewald, 1978, 312 Clayson, 2002, 244 Mainardi, 1991, 257 garde held its series of exhibitions from 1874 to 1886, independent of the Salon. The first impressionist exhibition can be traced back to the year 1874 on the first floor of 25 Boulevard de Capucines, Paris (Moffett 1986, p. 93). It was arranged at Nadar, a photographer’s studio included Monet’s picture called ‘Impression: Sunrise’. It was this work of art disparaged by the satirical reporter, Leroy as mere ‘impressionism’ that defined the movements name. This exhibition reflected three chief trends, namely, the Parisian circle that inspired Monet and Renoir to develop the sketch like style to the maximum, Pissarro’s vision of more solid country scenes, and Degas’s urban trend in Carriage of Races. Not surprisingly, in an era where the criteria for impressing Salons were for the painting to have a smooth finish, the Impressionists were rejected and ridiculed. The Salons deemed their work as sketchy, unfinished, and inadequate. The critics lamented that exhibitions based on Impressionism were similar to the house of horrors (Ward 1991). In 1876, another impressionist exhibition followed but fewer artists participated. Monet reflected studies of the Gare Saint-Lazare whereas Renoir portrayed dappled light and shadow in Le Moulin de la galette. In 1877, however, only eighteen artists took part as the chief painters began to dispute the significance of private exhibitions. Perhaps, Cezzane was the first amongst the Impression artists to realise that the style was based technique instead of subject. Paul Gaugin followed him in 1880, who moved from Impressionism towards Pointillism (Thomson 2005, p. 42). Although, Gauguin exhibited along the Impressionist group, yet his work was evidently different. The innovative style of the 1870s was formless as per the conventional standards , so after 1880 Renoir also resolved that he had reached the limit of Impressionism and ‘did not know either how to draw or paint’. After an enlightening Moffett, 1986, 93 Ward, 1991, 603 Thomson 2005, pp. 42 trip to Italy, he started working on a wiry, linear style that was contradictory to the freely, relaxed brush strokes of earlier years. After a particularly harsh review by Salon jury in 1884, another group by the name of Society des Aristes Independants was established, which hosted the last Impresssionist exhibition in 1886. However, the impressionist style was now only limited to the work of Monet and Arman Guillaumin. Although, Monet had exhibited only once after 1879 but he continued to develop the style further, making visual impressions by focusing on colours that demonstrated a single motif in diverse lights. He held that Impressionist style should be governed by formlessness and homogeneity. Raffaelli’s paintings dominated the galleries and earned him critical acclamation in the 1880 exhibition; owing to this, Gustave Caillebotte explicitly declined to show alongside him. This exhibition of 1880 proved fractious, as in Caillebotte’s perspective, Degas’s persistence for Raffaelli to be included in the exhibition proved detrimental for the group spirit and coherence. In the next exhibition held in 1881, Les declasses by Raffaelli and Little Dancer Aged Fourteen by Edgar Degas were the touchstones of the show. However, Raffaelis participation again contributed to schism within the avant-garde group as Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley remained absent from the 1881 exhibition like previous years. Although, Pissarro, Cassati, Morisot, and others contributed to the exhibition, yet Raffaelli once again became the centre of public and critical attention with his thirty-four pieces. Many newspapers reported widespread praise for Raffaeli’s work so visitors crowded the exhibition to see Cantonnier, Garlic Seller, Le Petit Parisien, Declasses. Simultaneously, critics went on to state that Raffaeli differed from other Impressionists, as he painted meticulously, with smooth finishing and perfection in every detail. Obviously, this review was contrary to the public’s attitude of sarcasm, mockery, and snickering condescension towards other paintings. The critical and positive reaction to Raffaeli only exacerbated Caillebotte and other impressionist artists and served as a decisive blow to group coherence. Jean-Francois Raffaelli’s ‘Absinthe Drinker’ was a product of the transformed art culture. Shown in the sixth Impressionist exhibition during 1881, this painting denoted a particular site, an activity, and coalesced the banlieque drinking with the declasses, that proved to be deviant cocktail for the original intended viewership (Turner 2000, p. 236). Raffaelli was one of the most preeminent painters of his time, even favoured by the critics. The artist accomplished honourable avant-garde credentials from The Family of Jean-le-Boiteux 1877 to collaborative work on Les type de Paris 1889. Thus, he earned the repute for being ‘academically oriented genre painter’. In the 1880s, George Seurat became another challenger to Impressionism due to his distinct interpretation of then-current notions of optical and colour theories. ‘A Sunday on La Grande Jatte’ reflected Seurat’s experimental style that was termed as Neo-Impressionist. This painting was his last for the eighth and final Impressionist exhibition held in 1886. It portrayed a landscape with people spending leisure time, a common theme for Impressionists. However, Seurat’s updated style added another unique dimension to the otherwise traditional theme by virtuoso application of pigment and colour. However, with the passage of time, as the Impressionists gained more firm foothold, the founding fathers of the movement began going separate ways to explore personal favourite techniques and styles. Monet and Renoir left the salon d’Refuses in 1880, after achieving artistic recognition and amassing financial resources. At the end of 1880, Impressionists had landed international limelight; it was an end to their lean years as their works found a commercially successful place in the market. Turner, 2000, 236 Pont-Aven School 1n the summer of 1888, under the guidance of Paul Gauguin at Pont-Aven, France, a young clique espoused the style of ‘synthetism’ (Lemonedes et al. 2009, p. 124). The group consisted of Chamaillar, Bernard, Haan Maufra, Filiger, Laval, Serusier, and Seguin . Gauguin and Bernard were amongst the first few to reject Impressionism and pointillist techniques and advocated Synthetist methodologies. The paintings by this group from 1886-1888 reflect an over simplified approach, intensely expressive colours, and spiritual touch towards the subject matter. For instance, in ‘Breton Landscape, Gauguin and Bernard used vibrant colour, dark outlines to give the painting surface a medieval enamel and stained-glass touch. Nonetheless, like Impressionists, their content was primarily based on everyday life. Acting enthusiastically on Gauguin’s advice, his disciples abandoned the Neo-impressionist styles adopted from Paris and accentuated the decorative element of colours and lines to demonstrate that painting is merely a flat canvass, which is to be ornamentally filled with colour (Jaworska 1972, p. 37). ‘Landscape at the Bois d’Amour at Pont-Aven’ or ‘The Talisman’ by Paul Serusier painted under the instructions of Gauguin became an integral talisman for all his disciples. Gauging directed Serusier to not only use memory while illustrating the landscape, but also rather paint intensely the different-coloured areas to perfection. After the return of the Pont-Avon school to Paris in 1888, the followers met regularly to deliberate over novel progress in French art, especially Symbolism. The avant-garde group of Pont-Aven took their inspiration from Japanese prints by employing stronger designs as opposed to the local expressive coloured ones. Similarly, lines were used as suited to the demands of design, in contradiction to the customary task for description. To emphasize the abstract and graphic attribute of their paintings, these artists Lemonedes et al., 2009, 124 Jaworska, 1972, 37 made use of darker and heavier outlines. Emile Bernard, one of the younger members of the group described their style as ‘Colisonnisme’, that portrayed the intentions and style of the avant-garde group. Moreover, post-impressionist realism was added in by creating flat yet decorative effects by drawing on from other cultures that were deemed as primitive. Although, Pont-Aven school believed in the concept of an artistic and communal society but after Gauguin’s departure for Tahiti, the original group dissolved, unhopeful for their notions to materialize. Symbolist art theories and methods served as the novel fascination for these artists. On the other hand, Serusier joined Nabis and became an active member at the Academie Julian. Volpini exhibition 1889 Gauguin was avidly awaiting an opportunity to exhibit his new paintings and techniques to the Parisian public. In 1889, Paul Gauguin adopted full-blown Modernism and explicitly declined to enter the academic exhibition at Exposition Universelle, Paris. The official exhibitions at the Academie des Beaux-Arts and Exposition universelle only exhibited selected works of art by invited artists. To add to the complication, the selected works had to meet the criteria of the official juries. Therefore, Gauguin and his disciples did not have much hope to qualify for the exhibition. Luckily, Emile Schuffenecker conceived another way to display their innovate talent. Monsieur Volpini, the owner of the Grand Cafe des Beaux-Arts was in a plight, as the Italian mirrors ordered to decorate the interior cafe were not going to make it in time for Exposition universelle. Hence, he was offered that Schuffenecker along his friends could cover those spaces by putting up their paintings. Gauguin was delighted and proposed for ten paintings by Schuffenecker, Guillaumin, Gauguin, Bernard, two paintings by Roy and Fauche and six paintings by Vincent should be included (Rewald 1978, pp. 255-265). However, Guillaumin and Van Gogh, acting as the representative for his brother Rewald, 1978, 263 Vincent declined the offer. At the same time, Anuqetin, Laval, and Monfreid enrolled in the group. In the end Gauguin, Laval, Fauche, Schuffenecker, Anquetin, Daniel, Bernard, Roy, and Nemo exhibited in the Volpini exhibition in 1889. This avant-garde exhibition featured Impressionist and Synthetist art at Monsieur Volpini’s Cafe des Arts. It exhibited paintings, carvings, ceramics, paper works, and the famous suite of ten one-hand coloured zincograph prints on yellow paper. Gauguin held that colour epitomized modernity and spirituality. His Volpini suite was his first attempt at printmaking and summarized his entire work since the last Impressionist exhibition of 1886. Using black crayons directly on the zinc plate compelled Gauguin to overly simplify his compositions and focus solely on form and contrasting expressions. The zincographs came to be regarded for their uniqueness, as the presented both, reproduction and translations of recent paintings (Lemonedes 2006, p. 56). This ‘exposition de painters du groupe impressioniste et syntheiste’ or Volpini Exhibition proved to be a complete failure. Although, Gauguin and his associates had a poster along an illustrated catalogue printed; however, only a handful of people showed up beside the friends of the artists. Thus, the show went largely unappreciated and proved to be a total disaster as the artists could not manage to sell many paintings (Siberchicot 2010, p. 187). As a result, Gauguin was dispirited about his future in Paris. The avant-garde group of Pont-Aven was compelled to break up and go separate ways after their financially unsuccessful experiments. However, to this day Paul Gauguin’s ‘14 watermills, 15 houses’, a reflection of the Ty Meur watermill is celebrated for its intense and vibrant colours. By adopting radically independent approaches and pursuing new styles of artistic expression, the Post Impressionists of the 1880s era dramatically inspired the subsequent Lemonedes, 2006, 56 Siberchicot, 2010, 187 generations of artists (Parsons & Gale 1999). These included the Nabis, the German Expressionists, the Fauvists, and American modernists. Exposition Universelle in 1889 In consideration of the French Revolution and fall of monarchy, Parsians determined to hold ‘Exposition Universelle’ in 1889. This exhibition proved to be a remarkable success with 61,722 exhibitors, 27000 foreigners and 32 million visitors and a profit of 8 million francs. The main claim for fame was a 300 meter high marvel by Gustave Eiffel, the ‘Grand Lady of Iron’ or The Eiffel Tower (Halasz 1990). More than eighty other structures in Champ de Mars exhibited art, including the colossal 1452 foot long Galerie des Machines by Ferdinand Dutert. Other than those marvels, Liberal arts, fine stoppages and other groups were also shown in other galleries. Besides French exhibits, the fair also consisted of exhibits from Europe, South America, and United States. Spectators were impressed from the phonographies and telephones. In addition, several other imperative accomplishments and firsts took place at this exhibition. For instance, it was at this exhibition that electricity was used for the very first time in the electric lights on the Eiffel tower and other electrical advances such as steam devices, photographic techniques. During this expo, Thomas Edison presented his first motion picture. From a cultural perspective, many nations made their debut in the Exposition universelle of 1889, including Argentina. However, many others nations still under monarchical hold such as England and Germany officially shunned it as they resented the decapitation of royalty. The exhibition displayed sample homes from a vast array of cultures called the ‘history of habitation’. ‘La rue du Caire’ or Cairo Street that imitated a North African market street was a remarkable success. Another fascinating feature were the Parsons & Gale, 1999, 233 Halasz, 1990, 307 regional costumes of indigenous people featured in the cultural exhibits. America not only brought its scientists but also Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show and sharpshooting skills of Annie Oakley. Nevertheless, it was a commemoration of French accomplishments on the centennial of French Revolution. Finally, the exhibition came to a close in early November to the sound of a cannon shot taken from the top most floor of the Eiffel Tower. Undoubtedly, the exhibition was one the finest and most innovative in not only French but international history. Overall, the Exposition Universelle of 1889 proved to be turning point in not only art but also music, architecture, fashion, and technology. 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