Economic Contribution of Tourism to the US Economy - Statistics Project Example

Tourism and World Economy Country of choice: United States of America Business: An ecotourism facility Economic contribution of tourism to the U.S. economy Data drawn from the OECD (2010) report indicates that the tourism industry is a major contributor to the American economy. In 2006 for example, the OECD report indicates that the travel and tourism industries accounted for “2.6% of all US services exports and 8 % of total US exports of all goods and services” (OECD, 2010, p. 275). Such statistics are indicative of the fact that tourism activities contribute to the country’s economy. Specifically, economic factors such as the gross domestic product, foreign exchange earnings, employment and investments have been affected positively by the tourism industry. Tourism’s contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) In 2009, OECD (2010) indicates that tourism as a percentage of GDP in the United States was 2.6 %. The 2007 tourism satellite account published by the US Department of Commerce and cited by OECD (2010, p. 279) indicates that some key tourism activities that had significant impact on the economy include accommodation services, which generated $88 billion, followed by the ‘food and beverage serving services’ generating $52 billion. Third in line was ‘passenger air transport services’ generating $ 47 billion, and ‘travel arrangement and reservation services’ generating $20 billion (OECD, 2010, p. 279). Cumulatively, the top four tourism-related activities generated $370 billion in 2007 alone. In the same period, all tourism industries supported 8608 jobs in the US (OECD, 2010). Data published by the U.S. Travel Organisation paint a more comprehensive picture regarding the role that the tourism industry plays in the U.S. economy. Specifically, the U.S. Travel Organisation (2012) states that the industry generated $1.8 trillion, of which $759 billion was the direct amount spent by international and domestic travellers and the remaining $ 1 trillion as the indirect amount spurred by tourism in other industries. Additionally, the US Travel Organisation (2012) indicates that the tourism industry generated $118 billion in tax revenues and this effectively saved each American household a total of $1000 which they could have paid, were it not for the tax revenue generated by the industry. The revenues were generated from real tourism spending, which is defined as the “goods and services purchased by tourists (Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA, 2011, para. 11), tourism spending considers such factors as money spent by tourists on air and land transport, accommodation, meals and other products and services bought while touring a destination within the US. In addition to being one of the largest Industries in the US, tourism (and travel) has also been identified as being among the largest service export industries as well as one of the largest exporters in the US. Data published by the US Travel Organisation indicate that the industry generated $ 134 billion in travel exports; $ 103 billion in travel imports; and $32 billion in ‘balance of travel trade surplus’ for the country in 2010 alone (US Travel Organisation, 2012, para. 2). Employment creation In regard to employment, The U.S. Travel Organisation indicates that the industry supported 7.4 million direct jobs and an additional 6.7 million jobs indirectly in 2010. Additionally, a total of $188 billion was paid out to direct employees in the travel and tourism industry (U.S. Travel Organisation, 2012, para. 3).The strong contribution of tourism to the job market is evident in the fact that the sector supports an estimated 7.72 million jobs, with 5.49 million of these jobs being directly linked to the tourism industry, while the remaining 2.23 million are jobs created in other industries due to their links to the tourism industry (Xenias & Erdmann, 2011). A look at statistics published by the US Bureau of Economic Analysis (2011), it is evident that tourism (and travel) provides more employment (both direct and indirect) than other some critical industries such as information technologies, agriculture, construction, insurance and finance among others (see figure 1 below). Figure 1: Employment (thousands) across selected Industries in the US Source: Xenias and Erdman (2011) Even if one was to consider the direct jobs created by the tourism (and travel) industry alone, it still outpaces such industries as agriculture and information technologies, and is almost at par with the financial and insurance services industry (see figure 2 below). In all the four quarters of 2010 for example, BEA (2011) observes that employment in tourism grew steadily, with 4.2 percent growth registered in traveller accommodation-related jobs, and 0.9 percent growth registered in tourism transportation services-related jobs. Figure 2: Direct employment (thousands) across selected industries in the US Source: Xenias and Erdman (2011). Tourism policies and tourism development Away from the revenue figures, there is no doubt that tourism policies affect the tourism market. For that reason, policy makers are usually hard pressed to make polices that do not affect the tourism industry negatively. However, it is worth noting that the US is perhaps the country with the most restrictive visa requirements amongst the OECD countries. As observed by Bonham, Edmonds and Mak (2006), the first visa waiver agreement by the US was signed in 1988 allowing UK citizens to enter the country without prearranged Visas. In recent years, and especially in the Obama administration, more countries have signed the visa waiver agreement and according to Bonham et al. (2006), this has led to an increased number of visitors from those destinations. But what do policies got to do with tourism anyway? Well, according to the U.S. Travel Association (2011) prevailing government policies regarding visa requirements to enter the country have for the longest time denied the government and all other stakeholders involved a promising source of revenue. Specifically, the Travel Association observes that easing the visa requirements could “create an additional 1.3 million jobs by 2020..., and produce $859 billion in cumulative additional economic output” (U.S. Travel Association, 2011, p. 1). Notably however, the policy makers should weigh their options well in order to balance the security needs of the country against the need to increase the tourism receipts by enacting laws and polices that enable easier and less-time consuming entry to the country by foreign tourists. As indicated by Bonham et al. (2006, p. 9), policy makers also need to change their perceptions regarding tourism, since stakeholders get the impression that “tourism has often been treated as a “second class citizen” among the other major industries”. Such perceptions are developed following the pains that stakeholders and tourists had to go through in order to make international travel in to the US possible. For instance, despite China being a potential source of inbound tourists to the US, Bonham et al. (2006) notes that the visa interviews, coupled with long wait times and expensive visa application fees makes the United States a less-appealing destination compared to other less-restrictive places. Niche Markets and Events in tourism development Niche markets and events in tourism, just like in other sectors arise or are created in response to expanding or changing consumer preferences, or as a result of consumers’ desires for greater product choices. As Novelli (2005) notes, market segmentation and determining the specific products and services that are well suited for identified target audiences is at the heart of niche markets in any industry. In the tourism sector, niche markets can be based on special interests, traditions, cultures, and events among others things. Novelli (2005) for example observe that niche tourisms can range from such activities as photography, geo-tourism, genealogy, youth, gastronomic, to Transport, tribal and cultural-heritage tourism among others. Unlike mass tourism, which is defined as the “conventional tourism involving large numbers of tourists in staged settings”, niche tourism targets special interests groups, cultures or activities, and usually involves a “small number of tourists in an authentic setting” (Novelli, 2005, p. 9). Figure 3 below is an illustration of the different components of niche tourism Figure 3: Components of Niche tourism Source: Novelli (2005) The segmentation, specialisation and sophistication that has resulted from niche tourism has contributed to the development of the larger tourism industry because as Novelli (2005) notes tourism businesses try to gain competitive advantage over the others by leaving the concentrated mass tourism segments and branching into niches that address specific consumer needs and interests. Consequently, and as more businesses venture into the niche markets, higher profits are generated as consumers leave the crowded marketplace and purchase their tourism experiences in more specific areas. Notably, niche tourism has provided an easy entry to most start-up business into the tourism industry since as Novelli (2005, p. 6) observes, “There is almost a tinge of amateurism connected with the niche tourism idea”. This is not to mean that niche tourism is less-competitive than the mass tourism market; rather, it is an indication that although start-up firms can find an easy entry into the tourism market through the niches, a high degree of sophistication is needed if the firms are to remain viable and competitive. Furthermore, niche tourists are very specific about what they want, and this means that a disappointment from the service provider can deny them business in future. In the quest to remain competitive, businesses therefore keep on improving their service provisions and this generally means that the niche tourist markets, and by extension the entire tourism industry keeps on developing. Delving into tourism events, it is worth noting that they too are a sub-category of niche tourism markets as indicated in Figure 3 above. Sporting events such as the Chicago marathon, the annual football tournaments among others are all example of events that have become formidable tourist attractions. When major events are scheduled in the tourism off-season, the effect on tourism facilities and tourism development in general is especially noticeable (Hudson, 2003). This is so especially because the events “attract a sizeable number of visiting participants and/or spectators” and this eventually means that the tourism facilities in and around the events have business as they cater for the transport, accommodation, meals and other needs presented by the visitors. The media coverage that accompanies such events also serve as a free marketing tool for the event and the host location, and this could eventually help in bringing in more tourists to the region in future. Participatory events especially in sports have been found to attract first time visitors willing to enjoy the experience, and even repeat visitors willing too re-live past experiences. According to Green and Chalip (1998, cited by Hudson, 2003), participatory events “target consumers who seek opportunities to share their holidays with others who share an interest” (Hudson, 2003, p.9). This concurs with Novelli’s (2005) view that people with similar interests are likely to enjoy similar kind of niche tourism products. Overall, Hudson (2003) through an analysis of the effect that the 2000 Olympic Games had on Australia’s tourism industry concludes that although events may not be packaged as tourism products, their ability to generate interest in attendees to visit the same location in future no doubt contributes to tourism development. The success of events contributing significantly to the development of tourism however depends on the strategic choices made by all stakeholders involved. Importance of domestic and international tourism compared to other sectors of the economy Figures 1 and 2 above are a reflection of the incomes that the tourism sector in general contributes to the US economy. If the trend observed in the two figures is anything to go by, one can therefore argue that tourism is indeed a relatively important sector in the economy, and is especially relevant in the generation of foreign exchange earnings as indicated by Milken Institute (2010). Data from the U.S. Department of Commerce (2009) indicate that in 2009 alone, tourism (and travel) in the US represented 7% of all exports. Additionally, travel and tourism was rated as the “largest services sector export” having generated $134 billion representing 25% of all earnings from the services sector. Further, Travel and tourism was ranked as the “third largest merchandise/services export” having generated a trade surplus amounting to $32 billion (Milken Institute, 2010, p. 5). All these indication seem to tell us that tourism is quite relevant to the US economy, or do they? Well, the World Tourism Organisation (2008, p. 321) observes that the GDP generated by visitor consumption is the most comprehensive aggregate illustrating the economic relevance of tourism”. To gauge the tourism industry’s relevance against other industries in the economy therefore, one would need to know what their GDP was at a specific time. Taking the year 2008 as an exemplar, the “travel and tourism industry’s share of the GDP was 2.8 percent” and was far more superior to other industries such as “Utilities, computer and electronic products manufacturing, or broadcasting and telecommunications” (Zemanek & Rzeznik, 2010, p. 37). The construction industry’s share of the GDP was 4.1%; while the manufacturing industry’s share was 11.5%. Finance and insurance had a 7.5 % stake in the GDP while others like agriculture, mining and utilities had 1.1 %, 2.3%, and 2.1% respectively (Kim, Lindberg & Monaldo, 2009, p. 28). These statistics indicate that travel and tourism is an important sector in the US economy. Notably, it is surpassed by other industries like manufacturing and finance and insurance in the contribution they make to the GDP, but it surpasses other sectors such as agriculture, mining and utilities. The relative importance of travel and tourism can also be gauged in relation to the multiplier effect it spurs in other sectors of the economy. As Stynes (2012), the money introduced to an economy through tourism can be in the form of direct spending on goods and services by the tourists; investment in the tourism sector by external sources; and government spending on infrastructural development among others. Apart from the direct impact of tourist spending and tourism related activities, there are secondary effects that are felt in the economy as a result of tourism. For example, the agricultural sector is often affected by tourism since most food supplies come from there. This means that tourism creates increased demands for specific agricultural products. Additionally, the employment created by tourism affects households and this means that a person working therein can for example afford to take his children to school. This means that the education sector could to some degree feel the impact of tourism. However, while upholding the thought that tourism is important to the American economy, it is also worth noting that unlike other sectors, tourism is a very fragile industry, which is susceptible to shocks triggered by the social, economic, cultural and political factors. The US tourism market has for example suffered shocks covered by the 9/11 terrorist attack, the invasion of Afghanistan, war in Iraq among others. Fortunately for the US, events that keep inbound visitors from visiting the country do not seem to have a major effect on the American’s willingness to make domestic tours. In a way therefore, domestic tourism partially offsets the negative effects that are occasioned by events that makes the US an unattractive destination to foreign tourists. Key inbound markets As indicated elsewhere, the US tourism market is limited by the visa restrictions that discourage many potential tourists. For countries within the Visa Waiver Programme however, US seems to be an attractive destination for them. Statistics from the Department of Commerce indicate that Canada is the single largest source of tourists to the US accounting for 33 % of all visitors in 2010. Mexico follows closely with 23 % of all tourists into the US; thus meaning that the two countries account for more than half of all tourists that visit the US in each given year. The only difference between Canadian and Mexican tourists is that the latter are not as big spenders as the former. In fact, Xenias and Erdman (2011) observe over 1/3 total receipts in the US in 2010 came from three markets namely Canada, the United Kingdom and Japan. Notably however, the country whose tourists spends the most while touring the United States is Japan, which according to Xenias and Erdman (2011), spent $13 billion in total receipts (including airfare and other tourist spending) in 2010 alone. The inflow of Japanese tourists in the US is at its peak during the summer months and as Xenias and Erdman (2011) note, most of these visitors, just like their counterparts form Asia are not interested much in sight seeing; rather they take up shopping as their main activity, and this perhaps explains why they spend so much while visiting the country. Major impediments to economic contribution of tourism The sensitivity and volatile nature of the tourism industry makes it prone to different social, economic and political shocks. In the US, the 2008-2009 economic crisis, the 9/11 terrorists attack, and the strict visa requirements are some of the key factors that have hindered the growth of tourism in a manner as to have an optimal economic impact in the country. 9/11 terrorist attack Although the 9/11 terrorist attack occurred over a decade ago in 2001, the insinuation that the United States is a key target by terrorists has not escaped many would be visitors. The situation is compounded by constant reminders by the Al-Qaeda labelling the US as ‘the enemy’. According to Cornwell and Roberts (2010), the 9/11 attack note only “caused a shift in the preferences of travellers for particular destinations”, it also cause “widespread concern about the safety of international air travel” (Cornwell & Roberts, 2010, p. 1). The effect of such concerns was immediately felt in the air travel industry where demand fell significantly. For the US, the problem (at least for the tourism sector) was compounded by the government’s policy requiring stringent screening for inbound visitors, and according to Alden (2008), this made the country a less attractive destination for tourists. Visa requirements According to Yale-Loehr et al. (2005), the United States did not change its Visa policy after 9/11. However, security screening procedures that precede Visa issuance were intensified as a security enhancement measure. Visitors from non-Visa Waiver Programme were especially subject to additional screening procedures and this not only prolonged the Visa wait time, but also made the visa application a less appealing process. Subsequently, tourists who did not find a need to go through the intensive process would opt for destinations whose travel requirements were less stringent. It is worth noting that there is contention in literature regarding the effect that the stringent visa requirements have on the tourism industry, with some authors like Neiman and Swagel (2009) stating that the post 9/11 security protocol did not discourage tourists from non-VWP countries from visiting the US. Specifically, Neiman and Swagel (2009) state that although there were declined visitor numbers from non-VWP countries in the last part of 2001 and in 2002, the recovery started in 2003 and by 2007, non-immigrant arrivals from those countries were almost at par with the pre 9/11 numbers. A different opinion is however held by authors such as Yale-Loehr et al. (2005) and U.S. travel Association (2011). These two are just among other authors who argue that a less-stringent Visa application process especially in the non-waiver counties would increase tourism demand in such markets. In an illustration of how the visa requirements affect tourism demand, Xenias and Erdman (2011) uses the example of Greece arguing that despite the financial crises that necessitate the European Union and the International Monetary Fund to bailout the country, arrivals from Greece increased significantly in 2009-2010 following its inclusion in the VWP. The same trend was observed in South Korea where inbound tourists from the country increase by 49% two years after being listed as a VWP country. The 2008-2009 economic crises The recession witnessed worldwide in 2008-2009 triggered cautious spending by consumers and that meant that leisure travel and other forms of leisure related expenses drastically reduced. Statistics released by the US Department of Commerce (2009, p. 1) indicate that there was a “record-setting year-over-year decline of nearly $21 billion (15%)”. The only other time that a decline of near proportions occurred was after 9/11 when a $13.3 billion (13%) in travel and tourism exports was witnessed. Luckily, the tourism industry has shown considerable amount of resilience and has reverted back to its growth trajectory. According to Hill et al. (2011, p. 1), economic resilience is the ability of a sector to “recover successfully from shocks” that had thrown it off its growth path. Another factor that may affect the rate of tourists visiting the US is the dollar exchange rate as indicated by Ka Ming, Hyeongwoo and Henry (2009). Although it is not clear to what extent a high dollar value impedes foreign travel into the US, Ka Ming et al. (2009) uses a structural vector autoregressive approach to prove that dollar depreciation makes travel to the United States more affordable hence increasing demand for tourism and effectively increasing the monies spent by tourists when in the country. The authors argue that dollar depreciation lowers “US tourism price in foreign currency” hence making it more affordable to tourists from the affected markets. Following this thought, one could therefore argue that dollar depreciation increases the demand for US tourism abroad, and this effectively increases the export revenue that the country earns. Overall however, it seems that the volatility of the dollar makes US tourism an unpredictable destination especially in monetary terms, and this may hinder prior budgeting and money allocation for tourism related activities by international tourism. Whether such has far-reaching effects on the development of the tourism sector is however not clear from literature. Strategies for increasing the economic contribution of tourism in the US Increasing the economic contribution of tourism to the US through strategic intervention is an ambitious undertaking by all means. That aside, strategic interventions especially those intended to affect government policy need more than just a single entity to petition the government; rather, a multi-stakeholder approach would be more appropriate and perhaps effective. For example, if the US department is to consider increasing the number of countries in the VWP, then more than one company will need to push the case; specifically, a stakeholder approach is desirable, whereby different players in the industry mobilise and petition the government to initiate changes that will affect the tourism industry favourably. Such an approach would correspond to findings by Honey (2008, pp. 438-442) where it was established that the tourism industry in the United States lack “national planning and government leadership”. Some of the strengths that make the United States an attractive tourist destination are the natural areas and national parks, which are in high demand from international tourists as leisure places. Secondly, there seems to be an increasing awareness regarding the role that tourism plays in the GDP, hence increasing the possibility that the government will continue investing in infrastructural development in tourist destinations. The weaknesses and barriers that hinder the development of the tourism industry and its optimal contribution to the US economy as indicated above include political, social and economic factors. Terrorism, fluctuating currency rates and other economic shocks, and the stringent visa requirement are the main factors identified herein. While the risk of terrorism can be reduced by enhancing security measures, the current government approach, which has made the security screening of visitors to the US a complex and time consuming process, is counterproductive. While it is clear that the government has an obligation to ensure the security of the nation is not compromised by terrorists, there should be more efficient ways of doing so without frustrating potential tourists who want to visit the country. However, and in view of the fact that the tourism plays an important economic role in the country, the fear of terrorism should not take precedence to an extent of guiding policy formulation; especially if such policies limit the industry’s potential. Just as the U.S. Travel Association (2011) has come forward to suggest ways in which the United States government can ease travel restrictions for inbound visitors, the different stakeholders in the tourism industry should come together and seek solutions that will assist government in adopting the right policies. Stakeholders involve the likes of academicians, visitors, tour operators, event managers, tourist site managers, government and owners of different hospitality establishments that benefit from the tourist industry among others. The above factors not withstanding, the US tourism industry still has a number of opportunities that it can utilise to increase its demand abroad. One such opportunity is ecotourism as identified by Honey (2008). Ecotourism is defined as “responsible travel to natural areas, which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people” (Honey, 2008, p. 238). The opportunities in ecotourism are largely generated by the increased demand in nature tourism, and as Drum and Moore (2002) note, if nothing is done to mitigate the effect of too many tourists visiting natural sites, the same values that make such areas attractive will be undermined. Nature tourism is basically travelling to natural and pristine places, without paying attention to the effect that such visits have on the local culture and environment (Drum & Moore, 2002). Since nature tourism is widespread in the United States, ecotourism should be the antithesis that offers solutions to the degradation that takes places subsequent to nature tourism. Ecotourism’s viability as an underutilised market segment in the united state is further enhanced by the fact that more tourism are becoming aware of the need to preserve and adopt sustainable tourism (Drum & Moore, 2002). Consequently, an increasing number of tourists are now choosing ecotourism over nature tourism because they feel more responsible in the former. The US is however still lagging behind in ecotourism if the opinions voiced by Honey (2008) are anything to go by. In this case, the group identified a private ecotourism site as their intended tourism venture. This means that in addition knowing the strengths, weaknesses, challenges and opportunities that face the tourism industry as a whole, the group will need to understand ecotourism management planning for purposes of understanding concepts such as “zoning, visitor impact monitoring, visitor site generation, design and management, income generation mechanisms, infrastructure and visitor guidelines, and naturalist guide systems” as indicated by Drum and Moore (2002, p. 3). Conclusion In conclusion, it is worth noting that tourism, just like other industries is competitive in nature. This not only means that there are different competing tourism attractions in the US, but that other emerging markets like China, Australia, Malaysia, Turkey, and Thailand are all packaging themselves as attractive tourist destinations (Milken Institute, 2010). Going by the 2009 statistics, it is clear that the United States is still leading the pack as the leading tourist destination with 11% share of the world market. This however does not mean that the country should rest easy on its tourism infrastructural development and marketing strategies; rather, it is an indication that there is much more potential for the country to command a greater share by optimising the opportunities it has and working to turn around its weaknesses. A likely starting point for the US would be to ease the visa processing procedure in order to make travelling to the country less hectic. Alternatively, the country could seek to admit more countries into the VWP programme. As noted elsewhere in this paper, the admittance of South Korea and Greece into the VWP is testament that waiving the visa requirements does in deed have some impact on the number of US inbound tourists from the affected countries. Stakeholders in the non-government sector also have their share of responsibility to play if indeed they are going to contribute to the development of tourism in the country. Being a capitalist society, Americans should invest in viable tourism niches such as ecotourism among others in order to consolidate the sector’s contribution towards the economy. References Alden, E 2008, The closing of the American border: terrorism, immigration, and security since 9/11, Harper, New York. Bonham, C, Edmonds, C & Mak, J 2006, ‘The Impact of 9/11 and other terrible global events on the tourism in the US and Hawaii’, East-West Centre Working Papers, Economic Series, no. 87, pp. 1-25. Cornwell, D & Roberts, B 2010, ‘Initial impacts and longer-run recovery’, Homeland Security Working Paper Series, pp. 1-13. Drum, A & Moore, A 2002, An Introduction to ecotourism planning, 2nd edn, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. Hill, E, Clair, T, Wial, H et al. 2011, ‘Economic shocks and regional economic resilience’, Building Resilient Regions: Urban and Regional Policy and Its Effects, vol. 4, forthcoming 2012, Brookings Institution Press, Washington. Honey, M 2008, Ecotourism and sustainable development: Who owns paradise? 2nd edn, Island Press, Washington. Hudson, S 2003, Sport and adventure tourism, Haworth Press, Inc., Binghamton, NY. Ka Ming, C, Hyeongwoo, K & Henry, T 2009, ‘The Exchange rate and US tourism balance of trade’, Munich Personal RePEc Archive, no. 18318, pp. 1-20. Kim, D D, Lindberg, B M & Monaldo, J M 2009, ‘Annual industry accounts- advance statistics on GDP by industry for 2008’, Survey of Current Business, pp.22 -37, viewed April 17, 2012, Milken Institute 2010, ‘Travel and tourism direct contribution to GDP’, Presentation, pp. 1-75, viewed April 17 2012, Neiman, B & Swagel, P 2009, ‘the impact of post-9/11 visa policies on ravel to the United States’, Journal of International Economic, vol. 78, no. 1, pp. 86-99. Novelli, M 2005, Niche tourism: contemporary issues, trends and cases, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington, MA. OECD 2010, OECD tourism trends and policies 2010, OECD Publishing, Paris. Stynes, D 2012, ‘Economic impacts of tourism’, viewed April 17, 2012, < https://www.msu.edu/course/prr/840/econimpact/pdf/ecimpvol1.pdf> U.S. Department of Commerce 2009, ‘United States travel and tourism exports, imports, and the balance of trade: 2009’, Office of Travel and Tourism Industries, pp. 1-24, viewed April 16, 2012 U.S. Travel Association 2011, ‘Ready for takeoff- a plan to create 1.3 million US jobs by welcoming millions of international visitors’, Visa Report, pp. 1-50. U.S. Travel Association 2012, ‘Economic impact of travel & tourism,’ viewed April 16, 2012, World Tourism Organisation 2008, ‘Tourism contribution to GDP’, Economic development tourism indicator, pp. 321- 328, viewed April 17 2012, Xenias, A & Erdmann, R 2011, ‘The economic impact of America’s largest service export: travel and tourism’, WCIB Occasional Paper Series, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 1-12. Yale-Loehr, S, Dmitri, P & Cooper, B 2005, Secure border, open doors: Visa procedures in the post-9/11 era, Migration Policy Institute, Washington DC. Zemanek, S L & Rzeznik, S J 2010, ‘U.S. travel and tourism satellite accounts 2004-2009’, Survey of Current Business, 90 (November 2010), pp. 31-44, viewed April 17, 2012, Read More