Utilizing Used Shipping Containers in Promoting. Flexible Space Use and Sustainable Design - Essay Example

Running Head: USE OF SHIPPING CONTAINERS Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction 2 Benefits and Features of Shipping Container Architecture 5 Flexible Housing, Flexible Dwelling, and Flexible Space Design 6 Flexible Housing 7 Flexible Dwelling 9 Flexible Space Design 10 Case Studies 12 The Future Shack by Sean Godsell 12 The Quik House by Adam Kalkin 13 The Mobile Dwelling Unit and The 87 Lafayette Tower by LOT-EK 14 Container City 1 and 2 by Urban Space Management 15 Conclusion 16 Works Cited 19 Introduction Every day, we are bombarded by the media with images of natural calamities, climate change, pollution, poverty, war, famine, and many other symptoms of social and environmental degradation. As a result, one would expect that the general populace would have a heightened awareness to the need for more sustainable living. However, a 2006 study in the United Kingdom commissioned by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and conducted by a team from the University of Exeter looked into behaviours and practices and found that "our society is far from sustainable". Key findings from the focus groups included the following: Respondents were willing to make "incremental adjustments" but few were "keen to adopt radically different lifestyles". There is an "intention-behaviour gap" - they participants said they were willing to change but, at the same time, they enumerated reasons why they have not yet done so (barriers to action). It was apparent that change would likely take place at a collective level rather than an individual capacity. Based on the results of the research, the DEFRA then identified possible courses of action and policy implications: Messages must be targeted at "lifestyle groups" and encourage behavioural change at incremental phases. Government actions must work to erode "barriers to action". Programs must use incentives - not sanctions or penalties - and identify collective actions that can create the "tipping point" for the rest of the population. Legislation, policy, regulation, and even marketing messages have their particular roles in this fight for sustainable development. However, stewards of the built environment - architects, engineers, designers, planners, and builders - should take it upon themselves to make their own contribution. The built environment is, perhaps, one of the most permanent, ubiquitous, and tangible influences in society, and yet, it is sorely underutilized in the sustainability campaign. Just as an example, a study shows that buildings and furnishings comprise about nine percent of the human carbon footprint ("What is a Carbon Footprint"). Therefore, to reduce this impact by even a small fraction should go a long way. Going by the "reduce, reuse, recycle" maxim of social activists, there are at least two ways that designers can minimize the impact of the built environment on natural resources: 1. Minimize the use of new components in construction and find alternatives in used but durable materials. 2. Integrate sustainable elements into space planning to encourage and allow the occupant to reduce his own carbon footprint, even in incremental ways. The main feature of this dissertation proposal is the use of recycled shipping container units as the basic block in creating new spaces, especially for communal residential purposes. This is a growing trend in many developed countries, because of an oversupply of discarded containers as a by-product of international trade. It will also look into the integration of biodegradable, renewable, and environmentally friendly materials, functionalities, and systems into the design. Reviewed literature did not highlight or mention if the architects using second-hand containers (listed in the Case Studies section) are incorporating such elements as a main priority in their design and planning. Benefits and Features of Shipping Container Architecture Shipping container architecture is a form of flexible construction, which seeks to address the need for comfort while addressing two important issues in modern design: Environmental degradation compels designers to reuse existing materials. Shipping containers allow flexibility by combining modular units (Geoff, 2007). Shipping container architecture uses steel shipping containers or inter-modal steel building units (ISBUs) as structural modules. They are strong, structurally sound, durable, and resistant to stress and the elements. They allow great flexibility and speed because they are modular and can, therefore, be stacked, moved, disassembled, and reassembled. There is a surplus of used ISBUs, especially in industrialized countries. The United States, for example, is a net importer of various manufactured goods from Asia and Europe. Products are transported inside containers. Often, empty containers end up in shipyards, instead of shipping it back empty or reusing it for export. They can also be bought, starting at US$900. Brand new, they can go up to US$6000, although they are cheaper to buy in China and other net exporter countries in Asia and Europe. On one hand, these "icons of globalization" are tangible by-products of trade imbalance (www.fabprefab.com/fabfiles/containerbayhome.htm). Then again, oversupply makes them inexpensive relative to new construction materials, like wood, which is very pricey due to decreasing supply and environmental impact. It also saves on labour costs because containers are designed specifically to interlock and to be stacked on top of each other during transport. As such, ISBUs are ideal for multi-storey construction. Furthermore, because they are manufactured under international standards, they are reliable and safe. Because steel is much stronger than wood or concrete, it is a cheaper to use in construction and even perform well in difficult terrains. And because this strength is intrinsic to the material, the foundation design can be simpler and less costly. This can increase the budget available for furnishing and finishing ("Benefits of Building with Shipping Containers"). There are also some disadvantages to use of ISBUs. One container can weigh about four tons and would, therefore, require use of heavy equipment like trucks, cranes, and forklifts to transport and stack. There are some special labour and construction components that can be expensive, for example, to cut the steel. Because it is made of metal, it can be corrosive and is a good conductor of heat. It would, thus, require certain treatments for use in residential housing, especially in tropical regions and other areas with hot climate. In any case, containers used for residential construction - usually sized 20- or 40-foot - must be either new or refurbished properly, especially if they will be stacked ("Shipping Containers Used for Container House"). Flexible Housing, Flexible Dwelling, and Flexible Space Design Literature on the typology of flexible architecture mentions flexible housing, flexible dwelling, and to a lesser extent, flexible space design. This section discusses each topic to be able to better distinguish between them. Flexible Housing Flexible housing aims to "adjust to the changing needs of the user and accommodate new technologies as they emerge" (Schneider, 2007). Till and Schneider, authors of "Flexible Housing" (2007), define it as "housing that can adapt to the changing needs of users", that is, by planning for different layouts and allowing the user to make changes to the layout or introduce new technologies as needed - to be able to follow the family lifecycle, for instance. This flexibility can also pertain to use of space, like changing its purpose from residential to commercial ("Flexible Housing Project"). There is a strong social rationale behind the idea of flexible housing. For the user, it can mean empowerment; he takes control of the space around him. For planners, it fosters responsiveness to the needs of the market, as dictated by changes in the demographic and psychographic landscape, which can reduce significantly the costs that would be required to renovate the structure eventually ("Flexible Housing Project"). Flexible housing design can be accomplished by: addition to an existing property either outwards or upwards adapting the layout within units joining units together through the use of shared rooms designing units so that they can be easily divided (Till, 2006) Kraftwerk in Zurich, Switzerland, is one example of flexible housing. With a total area of 600 square meters, it required a mixed-use development plan for residential and commercial purposes. To do this, the architects left the design open for the occupants, allowing them to subdivide the space, whether for personal or communal living or other desired living arrangements. The sizes of the apartments varied, ranging from 31 up to 350 square meters. For maximum versatility, the designers made use of cross walls, which could then be cut into as needed, to be tailored into the preferred space permutation ("Flexible Housing Project"). As another example, Mies van der Rohe led several other architects in designing the open plan for the Weissenhofsiedlung apartment complex in Germany. Lilly Reich's design of the Haus 1 component was specific for a large apartment unit, with two living rooms, a bedroom, a kitchen, and a bathroom. The Haus 3 design by Franz Schuster, on the other hand, was laid out for a childless couple, featuring only one living room, a larger kitchen than that in Haus 1, plus a bedroom and bathroom. Meanwhile, Haus 4 was planned for a bachelor ("Flexible Housing Project"). "Super-flexible housing", a recently developed sub-typology, builds on the "flexible housing" concept and aims to create "a dwelling that incorporates at least one feature at the design and construction stage which ensures that the unit is more easily capable of future extension or adaptation than a 'standard' dwelling - with either reduced cost or construction works or both, to meet the evolving needs of its occupants...(this is) not limited to standard adaptations, but seeks to incorporate design ideas and solutions which can be built into new dwellings from the outset" ("Super-Flexible Housing," 2006). Tattenhoe Park in Milton Keynes City in the South East of England falls under this category. The plan for this area was created to respond in part to criticism that housing provisions in the United Kingdom typically offer "standard" designs. Since Milton Keynes was a relatively new community, its officials wanted to veer away from traditional housing, to be able to encourage future growth and sustainability of the real estate business. As a result, 30 percent of the dwellings allowed easy modification using easy-to-remove partition walls and open truss roofs, to have room for changes in the family lifecycle and personal lifestyle, reduce housing turnover, and lessen the need for future refurbishing or remodelling ("Super-Flexible Housing"). Flexible Dwelling Today's busy lifestyle demands "flexibility, mobility, and multi-functionalism" in the built environment; these qualities when used in design are taken to signify the "modern and contemporary". There are also anthropological and ethnographic considerations; due to constant changes in society, the idea of a fixed residence and place of work - that is, as separate spaces - needs to evolve and adapt. This has been labeled "domestic flexibility" - people want to be able to take their home wherever they go. Simply put, mobile people need mobile spaces. This is apparent in the miniaturization trend (e.g., mobile or portable telephony), use of modular and movable furniture, and multipurpose and flexible structures. The "Living in Motion: Design and Architecture for Flexible Dwelling" exhibition, held in 2006 in several European countries, showcased many examples of this typology ("Design and Architecture for Flexible Dwelling," 2002). The event featured the works of Isamu Noguchi, Shigeru Ban, Marcel Breuer, Joe Colombo, Charles and Ray Eames, Open Office, Philippe Starck, Charlotte Perriand, and others. The pieces were classified under six themes: Transporting - we want to move ourselves and our things (e.g., Joe Colombo's "Mini Kitchen") Assembling and Disassembling - we want easier transportation of our possessions (e.g., Buckminster Fuller's "Wichita House") Adapting - we want objects that can be adapted to new physical or practical uses (e.g., Joe Colombo's "Multichair") Combining - we want to integrate various functionalities into a single object (e.g., David Greene's "Living Pod") Folding and Unfolding - we want to save space and, at the same time, be able to transport our belongings easily (e.g., Charles and Ray Eames' folding screen, partition screens) Wearing and Carrying - we want to be mobile by being able to wear or carry our possessions (e.g., Jennie Pineus's "Cocoon Chair", mobile phones, the umbrella) Flexible Space Design Flexible use of space is characterized by the following qualities: Fluidity - Fluid spaces let "individuals, sight, sound, and air" to flow. This can be achieved by the use of screens and well-placed windows. Versatility - Space must allow for "multiple uses" minimizes user effort. If it is too rigid, it would require the occupant to expend more energy to go about their work. Convertibility - The designer must anticipate future needs of the occupants and plan for various uses. Scalability - Scale pertains to the ability of space not just to expand but also to contract. If the structure is not scalable, future changes will be too costly. Modifiability: Space must be easy to reconfigure, with the use of mobile walls, divisions, furnishings, and even fixed elements, like ceilings and floors (Monahan, 2002). One of the important considerations in flexible space planning pertains to building dimensions. The width of a structure, for example, must permit maximum use of natural lighting and ventilation, to reduce dependence on artificial means and pressure on limited resources. Designers can also make use of planning grids. As an example, if partitions are aligned with window mullions and the overall structure, internal walls can be rearranged easily. Minimal use of columns and variable floor-to-floor heights present more opportunities for versatile space use, as well. With these, space can be allocated optimally to suit identified and specific uses ("Flexible Space"). Flexible space planning is especially important in learning environments. In designing classrooms, for example, it must be easy to adjust space to the needs of individual learning needs. This can be achieved through the use of mobile furniture and partitions and "re-configurable buildings, rooms, and passageways" to reflect the relationship of the built environment to the social structure (Monahan, 2002). The three typologies form the foundation for shipping container architecture. The next section lists existing examples of this design approach. Case Studies The Future Shack by Sean Godsell Australian architect Sean Godsell is the force behind the Future Shack, a disaster-proof prototype of shipping container architecture, designed for use in emergency and relief housing. In his online personal portfolio, Godsell explains the inspiration for the Future Shack: As architects in stable democracies our responsibilities are clear cut. Our role in those societies where freedom has been ripped away by force, or where nature has devastated whole cities, or when generations of minority groups have been forced into a life of poverty because of a political philosophy, is hazy by comparison. The need "to house", born out of the adversity of war offers for architects the opportunity to provide shelter for fellow human beings in need (Seangodsell.com). The core of the Future Shack is a used 20-foot container described to be "self-contained" and "self-sustainable" - it is fitted with water tanks, solar power cells, and even a satellite receiver. The floor area is only 15 square meters but it can contain a simple kitchen, bathroom and two pull-down beds and a table (Helsel, 2001). The Future Shack is prefabricated, ready to use, and can be assembled in only one day. Except for the use of roof panels to allow natural ventilation, only minor changes are made to the exterior. Steel brackets with "telescoping legs" are attached outside the container to erect the structure. Typical of container designs, the Future Shack can work even in difficult or uneven terrain (up to 45 degrees) because it is supported by steel plates; therefore, no footings are required. The Future Shack is fitted with a parasol roof to provide outdoor shade and serve as a familiar element - a "universal symbol of home", according to Godsell. The Quik House by Adam Kalkin Adam Kalkin is a graduate of Vassar and the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London. He was the 1990 winner of the prestigious P/A Young Architects Award ("Home Sweet Shipping Container," 2004). Kalkin designed the Quik House, a "prefabricated kit house" built out of used ISBUs; about 75 percent of the structure is made of recycled materials. To enhance its sustainable value, the Quik House can be "greened" further by adding systems for solar and wind energy sourcing and for super-insulation. Covering a 2,000 square foot area, it houses three bedrooms and two baths ("What is the Quik House"). Vogue called the Quik House the "chicest weekend retreat one can buy for $99,000" (Qtd. In "Home Sweet Shipping Container," 2004). Indeed, the container can be furnished lavishly, with stainless steel kitchen finishing, mahogany doors, and plush carpeting (Buis, 2002). It found some popularity in the design community, counting among its proud owners fashion designer Cynthia Rowley. Kalkin also found for the Quik House a niche in the social housing industry, working with his alma mater, Pingry School, to develop emergency shelter units. "Our objective is to create an inexpensive, quick, and environmentally sustainable architectural system that could be used by millions of inadequately housed people around the world," he described ("Home Sweet Shipping Container," 2004). What makes Kalkin's design principle unique is his multidisciplinary approach. For example, he engaged not only architects and builders but also natural resource experts and agriculturists in his Quik Build Disaster Relief Swat Team, to be able to provide a more holistic solution to the shelter problem (Buis, 2002). The Mobile Dwelling Unit and The 87 Lafayette Tower by LOT-EK The Mobile Dwelling Unit (MDU) is the brainchild of LOT-EK - headed by Ada Tolla and Guiseppe Lignano. It first came to market in 2002 and is said to have inspired many of today's module-based shipping container designs. The MDU utilizes only one container for a single occupant. It has built-in furniture and the interior is clad in plywood. Its area is divided into three usage-based sections to distinguish space for social, entertainment, and private needs, each one lit naturally by way of long, horizontal windows. The layout of the MDU allows for customization and scalability; it can be emplaced with other single containers to provide larger dwelling spaces, and can even be fitted with elevators or stairs and power, water, and sewage systems (Carpenter, 2007). LOT-EK is also the spirit behind the 87 Lafayette Tower, an example of high-rise shipping container architecture. Located in Chinatown in New York City, the building stacks containers on top of each other to comprise 19 storeys of artists' lofts. The base of the building is open for commercial use and is finished in terracotta, while the rest is in stainless steel. What is unique about this structure is its slanted form, with the slope starting from the third floor. Also, the roof is fitted with solar panels, to supply the power needs of the entire building (Alter, 2007). Container City 1 and 2 by Urban Space Management In 2002, a severe housing gap in Central London priced many public sector workers out of the real estate market and this began to force them out of the city. And so, the government was only too happy to find a solution in shipping container architecture (albeit it cost them about GBP1,000 per container). Today, they plan to continue using this design approach to help bridge the shortage, especially in key cities ("Freight boxes may solve homes shortage," 2002). The design agency Urban Space Management (USM) is a forerunner in container use in the United Kingdom. Besides the urgent social motivation, the company is also driven by concern for the environment. Founding Director Eric Reynolds calls USM's design approach "a tactic for recycling" (Johal). The firm first gained fame for its use of ISBUs when it won the competition for the Trinity House project, sponsored by the London Docklands Development Corporation. USM made use of the massive shipping container stockpile to revive the Trinity Buoy Wharf. It utilized modules made of Corten steel, thus, eliminating the corrosion problem that could arise from its seaside location. The unique feature was its use of galvanized steel to connect containers and support access ways (Johal). This was then followed by the Container City project. For 200 years, a shipping and manufacturing community flourished along the Thames, until the marine industry declined and what was once a dynamic industrial hub became a ghost city of throw-away steel containers. And so, almost literally, the Container City 1 grew out of the ashes. With mixed use occupancy provisions, it now houses an arts, residential, and community centre - five storeys of living/working spaces made out of 18 units of 40-foot, four-ton ISBUs stacked on top of each other. The units are fitted with sliding windows and portholes, treated with insulation, and then, interconnected to allow design flexibility. Walls are only about 2mm thick but are inherently sturdy. In fact, USM claims each container can carry ten times its weight when stacked correctly; therefore, it does not need the kind of foundation that traditional construction would normally require (Long, 2006). This was soon followed by Container City 2, which made use of 33 units. Because expenses rise as ISBUs are stacked, this project cost a bit more than its predecessor. Container City 1 cost GBP700 per unit, while Container City 2 spent up to GBP2,000 each (Masey, 2004). Today, the Container Cities offer local workers and students and affordable housing, charging them only a fraction of the usual rent. According to USM, while new buildings would charge up to GBP140 per square foot, the container tenants do not pay more than GBP12 per square foot per year. Generally, however, a used container would cost only about GBP400 each. Conclusion Some building manufacturers, architects, and planners have started to look into sustainable design solutions. LivingHomes, for example, prefabricates homes using environmentally friendly and nontoxic elements, maintaining that "factory-built houses... (are) far less wasteful" (Gorman). It recommends use of wood panelling that is sourced from places "certified as responsibly managed". It also claims that recessing LED lighting saves even more electricity than expensive compact fluorescent lamps. REGREEN was released recently by the American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) as a guide for "greening" home renovation. For example, this 182-page resource book talks about "universal design and design for aging in place". This echoes the tenets of flexible housing; proper space planning will help reduce the need for expensive refurbishing and eliminate wastage. The guidebook also stresses the importance of installing energy-efficient appliances and maximizing natural lighting and ventilation. In terms of furniture and fittings, the authors recommends use of materials that will not absorb moisture and furniture that are compact and provides space for storage or, better yet, use of salvaged but still reusable cabinets. For bathroom design, REGREEN advises capping water temperatures and use of low-water-use showerheads, high-efficiency toilets and water heaters, and environmentally preferable material for piping. Laundry areas, it suggests, must have line drying options. Interestingly, for bedroom layout, it even talks about noise management. The authors also stress the importance of installing hard-surface flooring that are certified, reclaimed, or at least, made of natural or rapidly renewable material. ASID co-published another reading, this time with an interior design firm in Colorado, USA, entitled "Turning Green" (2005). Pointers proffered include the following (Qtd. in "Green Tips for Interior Designers"): 1. Before you start, establish environmental principles and develop a plan of action. If you make a list of things that you want to accomplish through your efforts, you can also determine how you need to change your current habits and practices to achieve those goals. 2. Start in your own backyard. Inventory your home or office products and processes and determine where changes can be made. Areas to consider: cleaning supplies, office supplies and recycling. 3. Begin exploring alternative product options and green vendors. Don't forget to consider antiques and collectibles. 4. Get others involved and share your solutions with peers and colleagues outside of the office. Create an archive of green solutions that can be used intra- and inter-office. Some design practitioners have expressed misgivings in using shipping containers in building design, and these should be considered here. One TreeHugger.com contributor warned that "steel is not a renewable resource...moving it around is far from environmentally advisable" (Alter, 2006). He also cautioned that supply, while in surplus now, may not be permanent; furthermore, he noted that "overproduction won't be enough to satisfy our housing needs" but conceded that "shipping-container architecture does signal a new creativity among architects and builders that may be more powerful than any magic-bullet building technique". The same writer (2007) reported that used shipping containers may have been treated with toxic chemicals, particularly insecticides and fungicides, "Wood preservatives containing a number of organochlorine insecticides, including aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane and lindane, have been approved in Australia for treating timber used as structural components in cargo containers". He reiterates this warning, in line with the growing use of "eco-containers" that are clad with bamboo flooring, as an alternative to those fitted with tropical wood (2007). Based on the preliminary findings cited in this proposal, there are various pros and cons to be considered in shipping container architecture. It is not a cut-and-dried issue of "to recycle or not to recycle" and, as such, would require further investigation. One potential output from this proposed study - which should interest researchers and other designers interested in using containers - would be the calculation of the carbon footprint of the ISBU design approach. Since sustainable design and shipping container architecture are both relatively new design concepts, such a finding could form the basis of further study and experimentation. Works Cited "Benefits of Building with Shipping Containers." http://www.containerarchitecture.co.nz/benefits.html: Addis Containers Ltd. "Shipping Containers Used for Container House Construction." http://www.containerarchitecture.co.nz/containers.html: Addis Containers Ltd. "Design and Architecture for Flexible Dwelling." http://www.wilsonart.com/design/statement/viewarticle.asparticleid=20: Wilsonart International, May 2002. "Flexible Housing Project." http://www.afewthoughts.co.uk/flexiblehousing/: The University of Sheffield. 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"LivingHomes' Green Interior Decorating: Top 5 Environmentally Friendly Innovations for the Modern Home." http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/earth/4212727.html: Hearst Communications, Inc., March 2007. Helsel, Sand. "Future Shack." http://www.architectureaustralia.com.au/aa/aaissue.phparticle=11&issueid=200109&typeon=2: Architecture Media Pty Ltd, October 2001. Johal, Iqbal. "Container Design: Innovative, Recyclable and Versatile." http://hdg-online.net/index.phpid=3755&tx_hdgcategories_pi1[parent]=3: Galvanizers Association. Long, David. "Container City." http://www.containercity.com/article-4.html: Sutton Publishing, 2006. Masey, Anthea. "Living in a Box." http://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/main.jhtmlxml=/property/2004/03/31/pbox28.xml&page=1: Telegraph Media Group Limited Read More