Oil Exploration and Extraction - Essay Example

Concepts of Weak and Strong Sustainability to the Case of Oil Exploration and Extraction in the Regions Surrounding the North Pole Introduction One of the greatest challenges of the present day that the humanity facing, is to provide every human being on the earth access to safe, clean and sustainable environment and energy supplies. The use of energy has been a critical issue throughout the history in the functioning and development of human societies. However during the last two centuries, the mankind has identified the ways to harness the highly-concentrated forms of energy that has been contained in the fossil fuels. Such invention of the fossil fuels has been instrumental in stimulating the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution in turn has provided increased affluence and productivity to large masses around the world. However there is an increased realization that the energy systems of the world have to undergo a radical change if the sustainability of the supply of energy is to be maintained on a long-term basis. Concerns of people that energy supplies will be exhausted in the near futures though can be considered as an exaggeration, there is truth in the point that the fossil fuel reserves are ultimately finite and will deplete completely one day. This fact has necessitated the finding out of substitute energy sources. Another fact that always threatens the world is that the fossil fuels have been found concentrated in the Middle East and North Africa. This situation has led to major world crisis and conflicts - world cannot forget the oil crisis of 1970s and the Gulf War of 1990 - and there is the likelihood that such circumstances may emerge in the future also. Substantial increases in the oil prices will affect the world economy greatly and of late the exploration and use of fossil fuel reserves entails a number of health hazards. All these considerations suggest the creation of a sustainable energy sources for the future humanity. This paper draws upon from the available literature and makes a review of the need for sustainability, sustainable energy and the possible conflicts between the economy and the environment. Environmental Conflicts Quite often the linkage between environment and conflicts as an issue concerned with the struggle for scarce natural resources. However, the environmental conflicts can rise to the level of conflicts over the actual resources. For understanding the concept of environment and the issues associated therewith the concepts of ecosystem and environmental change need to be studied as they constitute the fundamentals of environment. The ecosystem is a circular feedback covering the living beings and their environment in a certain space. It is to be noted that the 'environmental change' does not represent the interaction of the human beings with the environment in which they live but it means a 'destabilizing interference in the ecosystem's equilibrium'. The ecosystem on an environmental change is forced to search for a new equilibrium at the changed environment. Environmental degradation on the other hand is the negative impact on human beings and the society resulting in a loss of quality of life. There are other environmental changes that have positive impacts on the living conditions of human beings. However the assessment as to whether the impact is positive or negative depends on the social and cultural context of the situation. The term environmental degradation can be understood to represent human made environmental change which has a negative impact on the human society and quite often such degradation may become the potential cause of environmental conflict. This would also imply a resource scarcity problem which has been in existence traditionally (Stephen Libiszewski). Thus the concept of environmental change and degradation forces to make a differentiation between renewable and non-renewable natural resources. The main fields in which there is the likelihood of the emergence of environmental problems are 'fresh water, soil, forests, air, atmosphere and climate, oceans and biodiversity'. These represent the renewable goods or services provided by nature. They can be considered as renewable because they are controlled by an ecological feedback system which ensures the replacement or the protection of the quality of such environmental components. Hence in order to make them renewable it becomes important that such components are not depleted or subjected to harsh treatment that breaks the ecological system which makes them renewable. Minerals and fossil fuels on the other hand are traditional issues that are associated with the resource conflicts since they are non-renewable. Hence there is a possibility that such resources can only be depleted and not degraded. Basically, when this concept is applied to natural and conventional energy sources it encompasses the sustainability concept with respect to such sources. Definitions of Energy, Sustainability and Future In the common parlance the words 'power' and 'energy' are being used intermittently although both the words connote different meanings. But the scientific definition of the term power denotes the rate of doing work. This implies the rate at which energy is converted from one form to the other or the rate at which energy is transmitted from one place to the other. Both power and energy are measured using different units of measurement. The term 'sustainability' has come more in to use after the publication of the report by Brundtland Commission on behalf of the United Nations in the year 1987. As defined by the Commission the term sustainability and more precisely 'sustainable development' is "'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."(United Nations, 1987) While applied in the context of energy the term sustainability includes mobilizing and using those energy sources: which are not substantially depleted by the continued use of such energy sources the use of which does not result in the emission of any pollutants or other substantial hazards to the environment and the use of which does not cause substantial health hazards or other social problems However the above definition cannot be considered to be realistic as only very few energy sources can satisfy the conditions laid down by the Commission for sustainability. Most of the other energy sources would fall significantly below the optimum requirements of sustainability. This implies that sustainability in practice is a relative concept rather than an absolute concept. It is the case that some energy sources are more sustainable in some context than other sources. The determination of the sustainability of one energy source as compared to other is usually a complex process. Such determination involves detailed consideration of the specific processes involved and the proposed technologies to be used and the values and interests of different parties involved. The 'future' in the perspective of sustainability should ideally look into a future far distant from the present. In view of the time frame envisaged by Brundtland Report, the present generation should consider the sustainability of all available energy systems for an indefinite period of time. However from a practical stand point the time frame indicated by the Report should mean that the existing energy systems should be made sustainable over the next century with a provision to enhance the time frame to cover the time horizon beyond that period. Sustainable Energy System In generic terms sustainability implies an equitable distribution of limited resources and the available opportunities in the context of the economy, the society and the environment (33) Sustainability thus aims at promoting the well being of everyone in the mankind, both at present and in the future. It admits that the needs of the future may be quite different from what can be imagined presently (WCED) The literature has provided the definition of the term sustainable energy system to provide for the energy efficiency of such system, its reliability and the impact it has on the environment. Bonser (2002) has crystallized the basic requirements of a sustainable energy system to denote the ability of an energy system to 'generate enough power for everybody's needs at an affordable price' and to help supply the clean, safe and reliable electricity'. It is also possible to derive the typical characteristics of a sustainable energy system from the political perspective of the term and concept. It is worth while to note that the energy policy objectives are quite similar in all the industrially advanced countries.(Finnish Energy Strategy; USEA) The common objectives of these countries appear to be improving the efficiency of the energy production and ensuring reliable energy supply. However there are slight variations in achieving these objectives among these countries. In the case of developing economies the emphasis for achieving sustainable energy systems is on developing the basic infrastructure by improving the nuclear safety and the lowering of environmental depletions and impacts. (Rimantas Bakas) Thus sustainable development does not by itself change the world to be made ready for use by the future generations. But the objective of sustainable development is to establish a basis on which the future world can be built. A sustainable energy system possesses the characteristics of cost-efficiency, reliability and environmental friendly nature. It should also possess the capability of utilizing the natural resources and networks. The sustainable energy system cannot be considered as being slow and inert and cannot be compared with the conventional energy systems. A sustainable energy system is considered as flexible in terms of new techno-economic and political solutions. In a sustainable energy system there is always the scope for the introduction of new solutions. Sustainability of Renewable Energy Sources Renewable energy sources both solar and non-solar have been found as alternatives to the fossil fuel and other depleting energy sources. However it is important that the sustainability of the renewable energy sources need to be assessed. Renewable energy sources in general are sustainable as there may not be a depletion of these sources. However it becomes important that certain renewable energy sources like biomass and geothermal energy need to managed following wise management principles, in order to retain their sustainability. All the other renewable sources of energy are quite unlikely to reach the state of their depletion by any rate of exploitation by mankind. However the use of such renewable energy sources is subject to different practical constraints. Renewable energy sources are also relatively sustainable as compared to fossil or nuclear fuels in the sense that the environmental and social impact of the renewable sources are more benign that those of the fossil or nuclear fuels. The concentration of renewable energy sources is very less in that they entail large areas of land or building areas if sufficient quantities of energy are to be produced. This may lead to considerable visual impact just as it happens in the case of wind turbines. The monetary involvement in the case of renewable energy sources is significantly higher than those of conventional energy sources. In order to make more use of the renewable energy sources the imbalance in the cost of producing the renewable energy sources needs to be removed. However to what extent the renewable energy can substitute and substantiate the conventional forms of energy is a question to be decided by the future. Approaches to Improve Sustainability of Energy There are three key approaches to improve the sustainability of the use of energy by humanity in the future. They are: a. Cleaning of conventional energy sources like fossil fuel and nuclear technologies b. Switching to renewable energy sources and c. Making more efficient use of energy Cleaning Conventional Energy Sources This process implies using new and improved technologies which will substantially reduce the adverse impact on the pollution emissions and health hazards. The objective of this process is to mitigate some of the adverse environmental consequences of fossil and nuclear fuel through the use of the improved technologies. This approach basically involves carbon sequestration and shifting of the energy use to less polluting fuels. Similarly in the case of nuclear energy it involves adopting safer and advanced technologies. Switching to Renewable Energy Sources The use of renewable energy sources normally would entail some environmental and social impact including the cost of producing the energy. However these are generally fewer than that in the case of fossil or nuclear sources. Cleaning conventional energy sources and switching to renewable energy sources are applied to the supply end of the energy chain which leads primary energy production to an efficient consumption of the energy produced. Efficient Use of Energy This process involves an efficient use of energy by applying demand side measures. This can be accomplished by using two different approaches - technological and social approaches. The technological approach involves installing improved energy conversion technologies that may require lesser input of energy to get a higher level of output energy. The social approach involves re-arranging the lifestyles of the members of the society in individual and collective ways to ensure that there is a reduction in the energy consumption (Godfrey Boyle). Oil Exploration around North Pole and Sustainability The energy markets around the world have been facing a difficult period due to increased prices of oil and gas, instability in the oil producing capabilities of different countries, enhanced demand for oil from China and other countries in the Asia-Pacific region and above all the depletion of oil reserves in the OECD zone (Robert Skinner & Robert Arnott (2005); Shamil & Timothy). These factors have made the countries which produce and consume oil highly sensitive to the latest developments that may place them in challenging positions on the global energy scene. Depleting onshore reserves would necessitate resource-rich nations to look for more oil and gas hydrocarbons from other sources like from undersea reserves and sources. According to an estimate by the year 2015 around 40 percent of the global needs of oil and gas will be met from the offshore sources. (John Westwood et al 2005) The dynamics operating in the global energy scenario clearly explains the recent polar expedition of Russia. The objective of Russia was to reinforce its claim of the vast natural resources of the North Pole region. It is expected that by the year 2030-2040 global warming will lead to the melting of the polar ice cap to the extent it would be possible to extract and transport the undersea oil and gas. Most of the Arctic thaw is taking place in Russia's territorial waters and the Russian Northern Sea Route will probably be open to commercial shipping in 2025-2030 (ACIA). These developments have potential impact not only on the global energy scene but also on the sustainability of the undersea oil and gas resources and its possible impact on the environment of earth. Environmental issues connected with the oil exploration in the North Pole region would pose significant challenges to the companies contemplating to pursue large scale Arctic Oil and gas development. The Arctic region is full of 'unique habitats of indigenous Northern Cultures, landscapes, fauna and flora and marine life'. There are quite a number of concerns raised by local and international environmental groups on the potential problems that the companies may encounter with their efforts to pursue Arctic offshore projects. These concerns stem from the views expressed on Sakhalin-2, the North Slope of Alaska and Alaskan National Wildlife Refuge. If the companies would like to proceed with oil exploration and extraction from the regions around the North Pole they may have to obtain a 'full-scale international co-operation with local indigenous communities, environment organizations, government agencies and academic institutions dealing with environment research, climate change, oceanography, marine biology' and the like. Addressing all these environmental issues would definitely add to the Arctic hydrocarbon ventures. Impact of Oil Exploration in the North Pole - Environmental Aspects The extraction, exploration, development and transport of oil and gas from the Arctic regions have serious impact on the Arctic ecosystem which is already fragile. Arctic ecosystems are more vulnerable to oil pollution since the limited sunlight and cold climatic conditions do not allow the rapid decaying of the organic pollutants caused by the spillage of oil while getting transported out of the region. Hydrocarbons have the tendency to remain concentrated in the un-dried soil and in all the shallow depressions of the region. During the times when the ice melts the pollutants will follow the water run off and will end up in rivers and oceans creating devastating effects on the living of the sea creatures. On similar counts pollution from oil and gas operations in the Arctic region can produce significant damages to the marine environment of North Pole. Associated threats to the marine environment include the noise pollution from the oil and gas exploration activities caused by underwater testing detonations, water dispersal while the oil drilling process is going on and the release of oil and chemicals during the drilling process. Thus the oil extraction and exploration in the North Pole region is causing serous disturbances to the ecosystems in the region making the energy resources in the region highly unsustainable. Apart from the ecological issues there are economic issues like lack of geological data, technology and infrastructure to pursue oil exploration in the Arctic region, investment and taxation issues (Ilya Klebanov, 2007) which need to be tackled. Although there are serious economic advantages resulting from the oil exploration in the Arctic region to the different countries and to the world economy as a whole from the sustainability perspective the oil extraction and exploration from the region cannot be substantiated as the damage it causes to the environment is significant (All things Arctic). Therefore there are strong points which affect the sustainability of the oil energy source from the North Pole region. It is not advisable to consider only the present economic advantages resulting from such activities as the present generation of the mankind has a responsibility to leave a conducive living condition and atmosphere to the future generation. Conclusion Thus from the foregoing discussion it is observed that the extraction of oil by itself cannot be considered as an act of environmental degradation. Even in case the total oil stocks are depleted it is not going to result in the destabilization of the ecosystem. But it would give rise to a serious economic problem. Therefore it can be concluded that the conflicts over the possession of land or other areas which give access to oil cannot be regarded as environmental conflicts. They are rather economic or social conflicts having different dimensions and magnitude. Only the consequences of the combustion of the oil and gas derivatives - for instance the greenhouse effect - or the damages to the environment resulting from the production or distribution of oil may result in environmental degradation and such acts may lead to possible causes of environmental conflicts. Apparently problems and issues relating to resource degradation have taken over the problems relating to resource depletion debated two decades ago. The concept of Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) is gaining momentum. This concept implies the development of the standards of living of the people with ecologically sustainable means (Sustainable Future). This again denotes any development for improving the living of mankind must consider the ecological processes in the natural environment and the development should be carried out in such a way that the environment is not harmed. It should also pave way for the future generations to use environmental resources to meet their needs. This definition of ecologically sustainable development is inclusive of the understanding that the development will be economically efficient, socially justifiable and will also consider all significant cultural heritages. The damage to environment has been the result of committing small acts consistently over a long period. If every individual is ready to take the responsibility for their own acts of using energy with self imposed restraints it will make a marked difference in the sustainable development of energy sources. From the perspective of Ecologically Sustainable Development the extraction and exploration of oil from the regions surrounding North Pole is not at all sustainable and is detrimental to the well being of the future humanity. References ACIA Impacts of a Warming Arctic - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, An international project of the Arctic Council and the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) ACIA International Scientific Symposium held in Reykjavik, Iceland in November 2004. Available online at http://www.acia.uaf.edu/ All Things Arctic 'Oil & Gas Exploration' available online at Bonser, D. (2002) Nuclear Now for Sustainable Development. Annual Symposium 2002 The World Nuclear Association, 2002 Finnish Energy Strategy Council of State's Report on Energy Policy Finland: Ministry of Trade and Industry, 1997 Godfrey Boyle 'T206 Energy for a Sustainable Future' Faculty of Technology Open University Ilya Klebanov (2007) 'A Region of Strategic Importance' Oil of Russia No. 1 2007 John Westwood, Owen Williams, Michael Smith, (2005) Offshore Prospects-A Long Term View, SUT-Society for Underwater Technology, London, 20 April 2005 http://events.sut.org.uk/past_events/2005/0504201/050420.pdf Rimantas Bakas Towards Local Energy Systems: Revitalizing District Heating and Co-Generation in Central and Eastern Europe. World Energy Council (available at http://www.worldenergy.org/wecgeis/publications/ reports/dh/country_studies/lithuania.asp) Robert Skinner and Robert Arnott, (2005) The Oil Supply and Demand Context for Security of Oil Supply to the EU from the GCC Countries, prepared for EUROGULF: An EU-CCG Dialogue for Energy Stability and Sustainability, April 2005, Kuwait City, Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek 'The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons' Available online at Read More