Statistics and Research Methods - Assignment Example

Research and Statistics, Research Methods TAQ 1 RESEARCH METHOD Explanation When research method could be used (with example and reason for choice) Limitations of the research method (why it could be less effective), with explanation based on example Laboratory experiment This is any artificial experiment that is conducted in a tightly controlled special environment to ascertain the cause and effect of one variable on another (Diamond, 1986). This method can be used to establish the cause and effect of a given set of variables (Diamond, 1986). The method was used to test the environmental effect on student performance (Taylor, 1999). Students were given a literature passage to read and understand in a room with loud music. One group was left to read in silence. They were then given a test and the results showed a mean deviation of 3.7 indicating that noise affected the concentration of students. This experiment is not ecologically valid because the performance of students can be affected by many other factors apart from stereo noise (Diamond, 1986). The real life experience of the environment has many other variables that are controlled in this experiment. Observation Observation is a data collection method that involves direct observation and recording of real life events (Spradley, 1980). The data is then presented and analysed for discussion and recommendation. Observation can be used to collect data on the traffic pattern on a certain highway. The method was chosen because it offered a firsthand traffic data that could be analysed and used to solve traffic congestion on the highway (Spradley, 1980). Data was collected at different times of the day and it was further classified based on car size that is small or personal cars, medium buses, normal trucks and buses and heavy trucks. This method of data collection requires a lot of resources and time (University of Portsmouth, 2012). In order to collect sufficient data to use for this analysis this exercise had to be conducted for a whole year so that seasonal traffic could be captured. This cost a lot of money and manpower making the exercise uneconomical. (WORD COUNT: 300) 2a.) Uses of library experiments Library experiments are important because they produce the cause and effect in a research project. However, they lack ecological validity appearing artificial for many researchers (Taylor, 1999). They also require tightly controlled environments to conduct making them unsuitable for ordinary research. They are best suited for academic research and other scholarly experimentation. 2b.) Uses of observation Observation is an efficient data collection method because it uses direct interaction eliminating second hand bias. However the method requires a lot of resources to gather reliable data making it impractical for small time projects (Spradley, 1980). The effect of the observer also compromises the method’s credibility. Observation is suited for social research projects that are provided with ample resources. (WORD COUNT: 115) References Diamond, J., 1986. Overview: laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments. Community ecology, 3-22. Spradley, J. P., 1980. Participant observation. Taylor, D., 1999. Introduction to Research Methods. medicine, 319, 1618. University of Portsmouth, 2012. Advantages and Disadvantages of Conducting Observational Research. Primary Data Collection – Observations. (online) Available at http://compass.port.ac.uk/UoP/file/664e8001-f121-4e5d-aa06-6c95c797e8af/1/Observations_IMSLRN.zip/page_04.htm (Accessed on 17 June 2014) TAQ 2: 1. The aim of the study is to ascertain whether performance is affected by expectation. 2. The hypothesis is that positive expectation improves the performance of a student. The dependent variable (DV) is the variable that is measured or recorded according to Diamond (1986). The DV is affected by the manipulated independent variable (IV) (Diamond, 1986). Performance is the DV (Diamond, 1986). 3. The hypothesis is directional or one tailed because it declares that positive expectation causes an improvement in performance. 4. Mr. Whitebeard’s class is the control group (Diamond, 1986). The control group resembles the test group but is not influenced by the IV (expectation) .It used for comparing the effect of expectation on the DV (performance). 5. Expectation is the IV (Diamond, 1986). It is the variable that is manipulated to affect the DV according to Taylor (1999). (WORD COUNT: 140) References Diamond, J., 1986. Overview: laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments. Community ecology, 3-22. Taylor, D., 1999. Introduction to Research Methods. medicine, 319, 1618. TAQ 3: 1.) Repeated Measures Design Independent Groups Design Advantages Advantages 1. This method is that it controls and reduces the heterogeneity of test subjects (Howitt and Cramer, 2011). Because this method uses the same individuals for different tests their individual variables such as age, intelligence and performance differences will be the same during the various test variations (Field, 2011). This reduces the error component of the experiment meaning that the results obtained from the experiment are more accurate and reliable. 2. This method is easy to implement because it requires only one group of individuals for the different test variations (Howitt and Cramer, 2011). This means it requires fewer resources in terms of money and time according to Field (2011). 1. This method uses different groups of test subjects to conduct different experiments according to Howitt and Cramer (2011). This method makes it possible to conduct simultaneous tests using multiple variables or different variable levels. This ensures that a wide range of experiments are conducted in a relatively short time. 2. The other advantage is that the large sample of test subjects ensures that the tests are conducted on “fresh” participants according to Field (2011). This enhances the credibility of the method’s results by eliminating contamination from order effects such as practice and carry over effects. 3. The method also offers a dynamic statistical model (Field, 2011). The model apprizes and incorporates the diverse mathematical properties of the test subjects in its final statistical analysis. This simplifies analysis of the test results and improves the practicality of experimental research (Collie, Maruff, Darby and McStephen, 2003). Disadvantages Disadvantages 1. The occurrence of practice effects on test subjects (Collie, Maruff, Darby and McStephen, 2003). The test subjects are bound to change or adapt systematically following repeated tests. According to Collie, Maruff, Darby and McStephen (2003) practice effects reflect on subsequent tasks because participants may improve due to practice and familiarization with the experiment. Other order effects range from boredom to fatigue confounding the test subjects according to Pan, Shell and Schleifer, 1994). This means that only the first test is unaffected by practice effects. Subsequent tests are affected by individual changes compromising the method’s results. 2. The occurrence of carry over effects on test subjects (Pan, Shell and Schleifer, 1994). Carry over effects refer to the effects that are acquired or caused by earlier administration of independent test variables on test subjects. For example in an experiment on the effects of different drugs the effects of previously administered drugs may carry over to other tests. 3. The method presents a restrictive statistical model (Collie, Maruff, Darby and McStephen, 2003). The method dwells on the premise that the test subjects must exhibit certain or definite mathematical properties in justifying its analysis. This assumption may not coincide with the data causing statistical complications when analyzing the test results. 1. This method is complex because of the large number of test subjects required in its implementation according to Howitt and Cramer (2011). This makes it difficult to implement because it requires massive resources in terms of money, manpower, space and time. 2. Another advantage according to Field (2011) is variability of individual differences. The method uses different individuals for different tests and thus the effects of heterogeneity are bound to increase the error component of the experiment. 3. Howitt and Cramer (2011) observe that the method is also susceptible to assignment bias. This occurs when an experiment is conducted between two groups without considering their background influences. 4. Field (2011) observes that the method’s results can be distorted by environmental factors. Conducting tests on different groups may be affected by varying time periods and weather conditions on the participants. 5. This method is also prone to generalization (Howitt and Cramer, 2011). Although the test subjects may have similar individual characteristics such as age and gender the results may not reflect or include wider group variations. (WORD COUNT: 610) 2.) Observation Experiments Advantages Advantages 1. Observation offers a real and direct method of accessing and evaluating the phenomena of interest (University of Strathclyde, n. d.). This eliminates bias in data collection providing accurate and complete information which makes the method reliable. 2. This method is flexible and diverse both in application and in results enhancing its applicability according to the University of Strathclyde (n. d.). This makes the method a preferable choice as a complementary data collection method according to Spradley (1980). 3. Recording is one method of storing observation data according to the University of Strathclyde (n. d.). This ensures permanency of collected data and guarantees data validation (University of Strathclyde, n. d.). 4. The method offers real time interaction with subjects under observation offering a chance for explaining the exercise to them (University of Portsmouth, 2012). 1. Experiments involve manipulating an independent variable in a controlled environment to evaluate the effects on a dependent variable (Diamond, 1986). This means that experiments are able to establish and portray cause and effect. The controlled environment eliminates the effect of confounding variables ensuring that the results are valid and reliable according to Diamond (1986). 2. Experimental results can be approved and validated through replication (Diamond, 1986). Taylor (1999) suggests that repeated experiments can validate results under similar conditions promoting the reliability of this method. 3. Replication also ensures that independent researchers can conduct an experiment by following the method used by another researcher to achieve similar results (Taylor, 1999). This promotes knowledge and educational development across geographical distances. Disadvantages Disadvantages 1. Observation is not easy to implement because it is requires huge resources according to the University of Portsmouth (2012). This undermines the method’s practicality especially in resource and time constrained researches. 2. The method is also susceptible to the observer effect according to the University of Portsmouth (2012). This refers to the influence of the observer on the performance or behaviour of the subjects under observation (University of Strathclyde, n. d.). 3. Observer bias (University of Strathclyde, n. d.). The observer may be subjective when conducting the task of observation undermining the validity of collected data and the method’s reliability according to Spradley (1980). 4. Observation tactics can be unethical at times (University of Portsmouth, 2012). It is considered unethical to observe people or real life occurrences for research purposes. 1. Experiments may not produce practical results because they are conducted in environments that are too controlled (Diamond, 1986). This undermines experiments and portrays them as unrealistic or disconnected to the real world. 2. Experiments require special resources to conduct making them expensive and complicated according to Taylor (1999). The environment for conducting experiments may not be easy to replicate posing a barrier to validation of results. 3. It is not always possible to eliminating confounding or extraneous variables according to Diamond (1986). This undermines the validity of results obtained in experiments and complicates the method according to Taylor (1999). 4. The behaviour of the test subjects under experimentation maybe influenced. Diamond (1986) alludes that the experimental subjects may act towards the expected results thereby undermining the credibility of the experiment. 5. Taylor (1999) suggests that some experiments are unethical Subjecting participants to some conditions such as sleep deprivation or drug use is unethical. The researchers may lack participants or attract a backlash from the society. (WORD COUNT: 520) References Collie, A., Maruff, P., Darby, D. G., and McStephen, M., 2003. The effects of practice on the cognitive test performance of neurologically normal individuals assessed at brief test-retest intervals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 419-428. doi: 10.1017/S1355617703930074 Diamond, J., 1986. Overview: laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments. Community ecology, 3-22. Field, A., 2011. Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. (3rd ed.). (pp. 15-18).Thousand Oaks,California: SAGE Publications Howitt, D., and Cramer, D., 2011. Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology. (3rd ed.). (pp. 164, 179-181). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited Pan, C. S., Shell, R. L., and Schleifer, L. M., 1994. Performance variability as an indicator of fatigue and boredom effects in a VDT data-entry task. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 6, 37-45. doi: 10.1080/10447319409526082 Spradley, J. P., 1980. Participant observation. Taylor, D., 1999. Introduction to Research Methods. medicine, 319, 1618. University of Portsmouth, 2012. Advantages and Disadvantages of Conducting Observational Research. Primary Data Collection – Observations. (online) Available at http://compass.port.ac.uk/UoP/file/664e8001-f121-4e5d-aa06-6c95c797e8af/1/Observations_IMSLRN.zip/page_04.htm (Accessed on 17 June 2014) University of Strathclyde. n.d. Advantages and disadvantages of observation. (online) Available at http://www.strath.ac.uk/aer/materials/3datacollection/unit5/advantagesanddisadvantagesofobservation/ (Accessed on 17 June 2014) Read More