European Sport Management - Literature review Example

Literature Review Name Institution Literature Review 1.1 Intrapersonal Constraints Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991) showed that the Interpersonal constraints are confronted when the intrapersonal constraints are negotiated or absent. At this point, the activity always requires more than just one person. The lack of family members and friends in an adolescent’s life to help in the participation of the leisure activities is the biggest challenge the youths can face in their quest for leisure activities. These are variables which prohibit the young generation to undertake their leisure activities have to be addresses effectively. One of this includes physical activities that conflict with the modes of education in schools. Such constraints need to provide information to enable the best delivery and planning of the sports programs in schools and other recreation facilities (Kubayi, 2013). The absence of above Physical activities in the schools is a major interpersonal constraint that affects the participation of adolescents to participate in the sporting activities (Young et al., 2003). 1.2 Intrapersonal Constraints These are the first to be encountered. Such constraints include the adolescents’ psychological state of mind, and the attributes which interact with the individual leisure activities. There are preferences such as anxiety, stress, depression, religiosity and group attitudes. Intrapersonal Constraints involve the adolescent’s socialization choices into very specific activities, their individual perceived skills and abilities and a subjective evaluation of the appropriateness and the accessibility to the given leisure activities (Crawford & Godbey, 1987). Since the intrapersonal constraints are initially confronted, they are viewed as the prime, most proximal and powerful constraints (Crawford et al 1991). According to Black and Weiss (1992), There are different contraints that affect sports participation in adolescents, such contraints may include the regular loss of interest in the sporting activity, poor perception of the sporting activities and other personal conflicts related to individual interests and parental support. 1.3 Structural Constraints Non participation into physical activities is not the end results of the constraints, Shawn, Bonen and McCabe (1991) have challenged the assumptions that constraints automatically lead to reduced participation into physical activities by the youths. They found out that, more frequent reporting of a single perceived constraint is commonly associated with a high level of participation as opposed to a much lower level of participation. Scott (1991) was quick to propose that it was important for the youths to acquire the relevant information, skills and the alteration of timing in his study to overcome constraints. The structural constraints therefore, play a major role in suppressing the intrapersonal constraints. These constraints correspond to the individual, interpersonal and contextual analytical levels (Godbey, Crawford, & Shen, 2010). The general study of leisure constraints has led to the understanding of the most important leisure activities that have been borrowed from or developed in the contexts in which they are used. 1.4 Relationships between Constraints and Physical Activity Participation Levels The comparison of constraints with the physical activates has showed that there is a major difference with the role the constraints play within similar physical activities. There are constraints that are perceived to be high risk constraints that are too physically demanding at the same time. Such include the ultimate adaptations that need to take place for the adolescents to take their physical activities to new levels. Leisure and constraints were examined to enable the advancement of the contemporary models of acculturation that places emphasis on the hosts’ social, environmental influences. The systematic study of the constraints and other different barriers describe the obstacles that are there between the children and their leisure time. In the early studies, many of the writers such as Hoffman 1980, Franken 1981 and Searle 1985 commonly used the word barrier to mean the different factors that resulted in many of the adolescents not participating in the recreational activities (Crawford & Godbey, 1987; Jackson, 1991). With intrapersonal categories, there is a perceived skill that needs to be developed that is followed by the intimidations of the constraints. The interpersonal constraints may not be significantly different across many of the physical activities, but for the structural constraints, there are activities that are most constrained due to lack of information about the given physical activities. Other activities are perceived as being costly and therefore not affordable. However, there is no big difference across the physical activities in terms of time constraints. Investigations into the factors of socio-cultural adaptations that are specific to the university students have been measured in an attempt to find the evidence of their adaptations to leisure constraints and physical exercises. Such are the physical changes that are taking place in the adolescent’s life or the whole group in response to the available external demands. According to Berry’s (2006) and Gomez, Urzúa and Glass (2014), their study on the factors of Socio-cultural adaptation, the acculturation and adaptation and adjustment frameworks they acknowledged the bi-directional connection among the linguistic proficiency and socio-cultural adaptation, as well as the cushioning effects and consequences of social support in easing adaptation (Smith & Khawaja, 2011; Zhang & Goodson, 2011). 1.5 Relationships between Constraints and Motivations Leisure constraints have been the main focus of many researchers and the practitioners since the last two decades. Most of the constraints within then youths are in line with the kind of motivation that is given to them. Theoretically as it has been seen, The end results of most constraints are not lack of participation of the youths in the physical activities, but their ability to continue with the participation. The need for affiliation and association motives, many children see the need to engage in sporting activities for the sake of making new friends and associating with them is a major motivating factor. The peer relations are a major link between a child’s sense of reception, acceptance and recognition. Such kinds of attention increase the child’s self-esteem and general motivation of most of the adolescents (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). A constraint is developed the needs for affiliation and associations with fellow peers are not met, then the child in most cases ends up withdrawing from the sporting activity. Therefore, it is crucial to give the adolescents a chance to socialize after the sporting activities to ensure the needs are met (Warburton, Nicol, & Bredin, 2006; Haskell, Lee, Pate, Powell, Blair, Franklin, et al., 2007). The perceived popularity among the adolescents is a significant indicator of the social status that many of the peers in their early adolescence face (De Bruyn & Cillessen 2008). The perceived popularity is the extent to which the adolescents view their peer as being popular (Cillessen & Maryeux, 2004; De Brury & Van De Boom, 2005). The perceived popularity is mostly related to many different interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints the young generations face everyday. Some of the motivations that drive many of the yough people into physical activities include the quest for power as well as prestige, school achievement, aggression, and self-esteem (Cillessen & De Bruyn, 2008). For that reason, many of the adolescents and their peers spend almost half of their time in some form of leisure activity. The way the peer status is interconnected to the various forms of Leisure and social development are motivated, is the same way the leisure activities and physical activities are related to the adolescent’s self-esteem, identity and autonomy (Crawford et al., 1991). Sporting activities and tourism are another crucial motivator of the adolescent’s participation into physical activities. The most recent emerging sporting events are a profitable slot for the marketing of many youths that has led to the motivation of the participants to travel all over the world in pursuit of the recreational and other leisure activities outside their own home (Alexandris et al 2008). However, other perceived constraints that come with the recreation- based travelling seem to have been ignored in the tourism-based sportsmanship. The role of perceived constraints on the physical activity of the adolescents in the aiding of recreational activities is not well-understood (Gibson, 1998, 2004). According to the process model of adolescent participation and motivation in sporting activities, it is suggested by Busby (1997) there is need for an immediate action since the intentions of the youths are predictive into the index of their behavior. Robbie Shifman, who was studying the involvement of international students and the local student's interactions, made several conclusions. Many of the students studying internationally were enriching themselves in education. Stodolska (2006) found out that the principal aim of the international students was to improve solely their education as opposed to being involved in other extra activities. They had to prioritize their work in education as opposed to recreational activities. Many of them found it guilty to strain from their work to participate in leisure and physical activities offered by their respective schools (Li & Stodolska). Many of the international students have also faced challenges with communication due to the diversity of languages within the learning institutions. For that reason, many of them have felt alienated and developed a sense of hopelessness (Taylor & Doherty, 2005). 1.6 Differences in Constraints Variables Among Social Demographics A study carried out on the general population has shown that there are some constraints that cannot be generalized with the general population as a whole. There are some constraints such as mental retardation of different people and other physical challenges that affect the social demographic set up comprise the intrapersonal constraints and to a large extend interpersonal constraints. Such kinds of populations depend on their care givers for the physical activities they engage in. In an article by Bülent Gürbüz and Karla A. Henderson (2014), they were exploring on the leisure activity preferences, predilections and the perceptions of the constraints to leisure among Turkish University students populations. A sample of eight hundred and twenty-two students presented different responses by paper and pencil survey that was administered to the students. It was found that the women more preferred leisure activities related to home based and socialization. The males, on the other hand, preferred Sports and less of other cultural activities. The access to sporting opportunities is one of the biggest constraints on leisure activities. The Middle East part of the globe is one of the areas that are emerging as a context for the understanding of the leisure activities for both the males and the females. The primary reason for such changing is the influence of the Islamic culture in the Middle East. Most of the governments are coupled with Islamic culture (Bülent Gürbüz et al., 2014). It is therefore taking time for leisure activities to gain ground to include all the sexes therefore delaying the establishment of associated sporting activities to all the youths in the region. The nature of the physical activities presented has to provide insights into the general understanding of the cultures and has it’s imperfections for moving beyond the laid down ethnocentricity activities that may be dominant in the western culture. In this case, the ages between 14 and 24 are very critical in the study of patterns of physical activity and sports. There are public health implications that may take place when physical activities in the youths are declined. The practice of physical activities in the adolescents has to be encouraged, and the methods that are used for the analysis of the physical activities must be socially acceptable. Ideally, the health-related behaviors, and other habits are formed during the early stages of adolescents. Such acts and practices last for an extended period and have to be monitored at that early stage. Therefore, the duration, intensity, mode of activity and frequency and if an actual picture of the habitual physical activity is required, the adolescent children have to be monitored for their day-to-day physical activity. To establish etiological foundations and how to best encourage the teenagers to engage in physical activity is a requirement to enable the researchers to understand the changing patterns and determinants of physical activity during the period of development (Susan et al., 2007) Many of the adolescents do not get the recommended levels of physical activity, as it is required. Girls, in particular, have a serious challenge when it comes to physical activities increasing their physical risk factors for health-related disorders such as obesity, cardiovascular dysfunctions and other related chronic diseases (Jonathan, 2001). Due to the risk factors involved, the research focuses on the evidence-based strategies to be used in creating policies and conducive environments to allow the children to participate in physical activities. The increasing trends in the youthful health related diseases suggest that it is of significant concern that each child has to be monitored and given equal chance to engage in many of the available sporting activities in the country. According to Ogden et al 2006, children between the ages 14 to 17 risk being overweight and the overweight statistics have increased from 22% between the years 1999 and 2000 and a further increase of 26.2% between the years 2003 and 2004. These figures represent a broad range of the world population. Intrapersonal constraints are seen from a population comprising of youths from different regions in the world coming together. The foreigners fear to take part in the physical activities due to various constraints such as culture, language barriers and racism. Their participation in intramurals is the most useful tool for minimizing issues such as the feeling of alienation and loneliness. Such will help them develop a social network within the different levels of education As much as different cultures also play a very significant role in the participation of students in sports, it is important for the adolecents to undertake the sporting activities to enable them deal with the intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints (Walker et al., 2007). Such constraints are faced with their participation in the intramural sports in their respective high schools. References Alexandris, C. K. (2008). European Sport Management Quarterly. Examining The Relationships Between Leisure Constraints, Involvement And Attitudinal Loyalty Among Greek Recreational Skiers , 247-264. Berry, J. W. (2006). 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