How Sport Has Changed Over Time - Literature review Example

How Sports Has Changed Over Time of Institute How Sports Has Changed Over Time Sports is one of the oldest cultural activities in the world. The history of sports could be traced to the period of the early man when existence was purely sportive and active. Sports helped and still do help people master the environment and nature. The trajectory of sports is useful in understanding the social changes surrounding sports. On the baseline, sports involve the application and development of human skills in a useful way and for fun. In addition, sport show the changes in societal beliefs, which have brought about changes in rules. The further back one goes in history the more challenging it becomes to appreciate the theories explaining the origins and purposes of sports. Section One Evidence of sporting activities has been traced as far as the early man. Cave paintings have been discovered in France that suggests the existence of wrestling and sprinting during the Upper Paleolithic period (Dunning et al., 2004, p.12). Similar evidence has been found in Mongolia suggesting that huge crowds of people attended wrestling. In addition, archeological evidence from Libya indicates that swimming and archery were practiced during the Neolithic period (p.13). In Japan, cave paintings have suggested the practice of a game similar to the sumo wrestling. The Greek sporting festivals are perhaps the most popular historic sports ever documented. The funeral games held in honor of fallen warriors date back to 1600 B.C. (p.13). Sports was considered an occupation of the wealthy members of the society because they needed no manual labor to survive. For instance, King Odysseus of Ithaca demonstrated his loyalty to King Alkinoos through his proficiency in throwing the javelin. The first Olympic Games held in 776 B.C. marked the beginning of formalization of sports (p.14). The games were held after four years chronologically. Initially, the Olympic Games began with a sprinting event but soon expanded to incorporate other sports such as boxing, discus throw, javelin throw, chariot racing, and wrestling. Teams were an invention of the Western culture according to some historians. The teams sprang from England and spread through its colonial Empire. European colonialism was a means of spreading certain games throughout the world (p. 15), including cricket, football, bowling, cue sports, hockey, and tennis. The modern Olympic Games brought standardization of sports by developing rules to that effect. The industrial revolution and resultant mass production stepped up leisure time hence allowing most people time to participate in or watch spectator sports. There also emerged elitism in many kinds of sports as people enjoyed increased accessibility. In addition, people started to gamble upon sports based on the outcomes. The advent of global communication and mass media injected professionalism into sports. The popularity of sports increased due to the high levels of professionalism (Law et al., 2002, p. 280). Winners were valued highly, and this prompted some players to devise cheating mechanisms that guarantee them victory. Cheating mechanisms used today include performance-enhancing drugs popularly known as asteroids (Field et al., 2005, p. 217). These drugs have been challenged recently because they dilute the value of sports. Agencies have been established to ensure professional athletes do not win undeservingly. Societies in the past never tolerated the participation of women in sports. Organized sport in the English school setting discouraged women from taking part in sports during the 19th century. The 1896 Olympic Games was purely an affair of men. However, the 20th century was a new dawn for women. There were significant advances in women participation in sports. Despite being restrained to participation as fans, coaches, officials, administrators, athletes, and journalists, these positions paved the way for actual participation in the games. Women have for a long time been considered less competitive than men have. The heightened advocacy for women’s rights is attributed to the increased participation of women in sports. The Title 9 Act of 1972, for instance, significantly boosted the participation of United States women in sports. The Act did away with gender discrimination and pushed for an equal opportunity as far as participation in sports was concerned (Coakley, 2007, p.33). In addition, the bodies that fund sports have come out strong in support for gender equality in sports as a condition precedent to releasing funds. For example, the previously male-dominated Leander Rowing Club and Marylebone Cricket Club started to accommodate women at the close of the 20th century because the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund required gender equality in the sports. Section Two There are a number of social theories that explain the drastic changes in sports over time. Theories are the general views that try to figure out how the world works. Most theories are a combination of descriptive, reflective, and analytic viewpoints. Overall, theories have practical implications because they help people make choices. Sports’ being a social phenomenon has attracted several theories, which try to figure out the developments therein since the ancient times (Delaney & Madigan, 2009, p.100). The functionalist and feminist theories can explain the developments discussed in section one above. The functionalist theory postulates that the society is an organized system with interrelated parts. Consequently, the theory looks at sports based on how it (sports) contributes to the organized system. The research on sports using the functionalist theory concentrate on the positive outcomes that sports brings to the individuals participating in it and the society overall. In this regard, elements of deviant behavior in sports are marked as disrupting the organized system (Donnelly, 2008, p.34). This theory has been popular because it assumes that the foundations of social order are shared values and agreement. Elite programs help prevent deviant behavior because the young people find role models in sports. The powerful and influential individuals favor this theory as it puts social stability and equilibrium center stage. The media coverage uses the same assumptions as this theory. The advent of teams in sports was meant to bring sanity in the realm of sports. Previous arrangements were quite disorganized as people played without any rules. Greater deviance was witnessed during these early days because the system was devoid of regulations. Essentially, the laws applicable at the time did not extend to sports. In addition, sports was a preserve of the wealthy who were considered above the law in most cases. When fights and deaths started to emerge from sports as was seen in most public schools and earlier Olympic Games, institutions were formed to regulate sports. The FIFA, for instance, regulates football worldwide. The obligations of the coach, the players, the spectators, and the clubs are so clearly defined that any breach attracts severe penalties (Pedersen, 2014, p.22). Some players have been chased from the football pitch when they show tendencies of causing disruptions in the game or playing in a dangerous manner. The punishments have also extended to the use of racist or abusive language or remarks against any persons on the playground (p.88). Feminism has encouraged the growth of women teams as distinct from men teams in what seems to be an open fight against masculinity in sports. Mass media stepped up professionalism in sports as discussed in section one. Players today have realized that they cannot climb the ladder if they play in the crude olden ways. Global communication such as the DSTv has popularized sports thereby putting social order in a delicate position. Teams do their best to attain the highest levels of professionalism and appeal (Rowe, 2003, p.282). Deviance, therefore, is a foregone thing. Essentially, the media help to praise and shame at the same time. A good name is the key to survival in sports. Most players have maintained popularity because they are disciplined and play professionally. The media has prompted players to boost their body image. Women, specifically, are trying hard to maintain their body shape through engagement in sporting activities. It would appear that feminism is fighting for equality while in reality it is objectifying women based on physical appearance. Feminist theories attempt to explain how sports propagate the ideas of femininity and masculinity. The theories portray the poor (mis)representation of women in sports. In doing so, they highlight the strategies women use to challenge the dominant gender ideology. At the heart of these theories is the patriarchal structure of sports and organizations in charge of sports (Dworkin & Messner, 2002, p. 348). These theories challenge the sporting aspects that discriminate against women. Consequently, feminist theories have taken sports as a means of empowering women. In most cases, the theories favor sports that serve the interests of women. In the recent years, the participation of women in sports has increased tremendously compared to the earlier days when sports began. Sports have been viewed as an activity for men exclusively. The social order created roles for men and women. Women were restrained to home chores such as cooking and nursing babies. Consequently, women had little time to engage in leisure activities such as sports. In addition, sports was a means of exercising and making the body physically fit. This aspect made sports more masculine than feminine. The basic element that made men superior to women was physical fitness (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p.829). That explains why men could not tolerate the involvement of women in sports. The increased advocacy for the rights of women lately has seen many women taking up sports (Dworkin & Messner, 2002, p. 348). Each sporting activity now has a women branch. At no time, however, have men and women been involved in the same team of sports. Cricket, for instance, has men and women teams. In as much as feminism is trying to advocate for equal rights, it is dividing the society even more. Women teams have been viewed as weaker and lack professionalism (p.349). For this reason, no women team can play against men team. Section Three As mentioned in section two, theories facilitate the process of seeking answers to certain questions, collecting and analyzing information, and interpreting the implications of any such analyses. The choice of theories highly depends on the political agendas and goals one wants to achieve. Consequently, the best theory is that which helps find ways of making the world a more democratic and humane place in whatever aspect concerned (Anderson, 2010, p.93). Going by the two theories discussed in section two, the functionalist theory carries the day in explaining the developments in sports. Sports has become the fabric of society that unites people regardless of status, origin, religion, or gender (Coakley, 2007, p.54). The functionalist theory puts social order at its center and argues that sports help achieve this order. In a democratic society, all people are included, and discrimination is not tolerated. The theory has been challenged on various grounds, which are not merited. For instance, some critics have argued that the functionalist theory assumes that all groups in the society benefit equally. In addition, it has been argued that the functionalist theory does not acknowledge the fact that sports are social constructions. On the contrary, these criticisms serve to support the democratic basis of the functionalist theory. Sports is a good thing, and it should benefit all members of the society equally. The society has traditionally been constructive hence, sports cannot be blamed as a product of such construction (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p.830). The developments in sports have helped get rid of the discriminative elements of sports based on gender. Feminist theories are far from the threshold of best theories. In the first instance, feminist theories do not have a clear guidance for assessing the forms of resistance. In addition, the theories cannot assess the value of actions and ideas that produce social transformation. These theories also assume that women have the same interest, which is not the case (Dworkin & Messner, 2002, p. 350). By pitting women against men, feminist theories divide the society even more. This trend is nowhere close to what democracy advocates. The social order that is at the heart of a democratic system turns out poisonous when feminist ideologies come to play. Today, women and teams rub against each other in what is seen as disruption of the social order. Men consider women involvement in sports as displacing men from a position they have held peacefully since time immemorial. It is rare to find men competing women in house chores such as nursing babies. When women take up leisure activities, there is a higher probability that housing chores are neglected, which brings conflict at home (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p.833). It does not surprise why most women who take up sports are never married. If the trend continues, the world population will decrease tremendously as chaos characterizes most homes. If sports is to continue developing in a positive way, the functionalist ideas should be the guiding factors. Sports has the power to build and destroy in an equal measure due to the large crowds it attracts today (Donnelly, 2008, p. 41). With the increasing spread of democracy in the world, it makes sense for sanity to prevail in sports. Only then will social order be achieved and propagated through sports (Rowe, 2003, p.285). Deviant behavior should not be tolerated, and players should be respectful and play with professionalism. Practices such as hooliganism, racism, and the use of dubious ways to become victorious should be punished severely. More rules should be developed to regulate emerging trends in sports with tendencies to spark social disorder. Conclusion Sports has a history longer than most other social aspects. This essay has explored the trajectory of sports to discover the developments that have occurred over time. The development of rules to regulate various aspects of sports was identified. In addition, the role of mass media in enhancing order and professionalism in sports has been highlighted. Finally, the increased participation of women in sports was identified as well. Theorists have attempted to give meaning to these developments by explaining how they came to being. The functionalist and feminist theories have been discussed in as far as they explain the three developments. The functionalist theory turned out to be the best theory to explain the developments in sports because it is in line with the democratic society currently in place. References Anderson, E., 2010. Sport, theory and social problems. New York: Springer. Coakley, J., 2007. Sports In Society: Issues and Controversies, Ninth Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Connell, R.W & Messerschmidt, J.W., 2005. Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept. Journal of Gender and Society, 19 (6), 829-859. Delaney, T. and Madigan, T., 2009. The sociology of sports: An introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill. Donnelly, P., 2008. Sport and social theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Dunning, E., Malcolm, D. and Waddington, I., 2004. Sport Histories: Figurational Studies in the Development of Modern Sports. New York: Cambridge University Press Dworkin, S., & Messner, M.A., 2002. Introduction: Gender Relations and Sport. Journal of Sociological Perspectives, 45 (1): 347-352. Field, A. E., Austin, B., Camargo, C. A., Taylor, C. B. and Colditz G. A., 2005. Exposure to the Mass Media, Body Shape Concerns, and Use of Supplements to Improve Weight and Shape Among Male and Female Adolescents. Pediatrics, 116 (2), 214-220. Law, A., Harvey, J., and Kemp, S., 2002. The Global Sport Mass Media Oligopoly The Three Usual Suspects and More. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37 (3), 279-302. Pedersen, P. M., 2014. Contemporary Sport Management, 5th Edition. New York: Routledge. Rowe, D., 2003. Sport and the Repudiation of the Global. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 38 (3), 281-294. Read More