The Concept of Essentialism - Term Paper Example

WHY IS MOTHERHOOD A CONTESTED IDENTITY? TENSIONS BETWEEN ESSENTIALIST AND NON-ESSENTIALIST THEORIES OF IDENTITY INTRODUCTION: There are several aspects to the concept of identity, such as the social, the symbolic, the biological and the essentialist. Woodward (1997: 1) states that “identity matters, both in terms of social and political concerns within the contemporary world and within academic discourses where identity has been seen as conceptually important in offering explanations of social and cultural changes.” Motherhood is generally seen as “natural” or biological. This perception of motherhood gives it the potential for further comparative study with respect to an essentialist view of identity against a social constructivist view. This paper proposes to study the concept of essentialism; and different theoretical perspectives from psychoanalysis, social constructionism, and theories of embodiment. Different theoreticians’ views are taken into consideration: Freud, Lacan, Foucault, etc. By discussing these theories, this study seeks to formulate a solution as to why motherhood is a “contested identity”. DISCUSSION: Hobson et al (2002) state that the present concept of motherhood as a social and personal identity has emerged over a long period of change. However, the role of the mother is mainly represented as marginalised or an “absent presence”, which is a result of the patriarchal system, says Foucault (Woodward, 1997). The Historical and Social Concept of Motherhood Historically, three broad mother discourses or narratives pertain to the early modern, high-modernist and post-modern mothers, corresponding to the pre-Industrial Revolution era, the First World War and the Second World War. These may be described as first: Rousseauian discourses, second: Darwinwinian/ Marxist/ Freudian discourses, and finally recent post-modern mother discourses. During Rousseau’s time, western culture turned a new focus on the child. This change produced the modern mother in her role specially to care for the child. Rousseau’s contribution was that he established a concept of child-rearing as a long preparation for adulthood, carefully overseen by the parents and the significant role of the mother (Kaplan, 1992). This was the precursor to the era of psychoanalysis. The Psychoanalytic Perception of Motherhood According to Kaplan (1992), psychoanalytic theory is useful for understanding fictional phenomena that other methods cannot account for. Unconscious pre-Oedipal fusional or symbiotic processes are both relevant, since maternal melodramas of both types represent desire for fusion with the mother. Humanist/ sociological Freudian theories in nineteenth century women’s texts and select twentieth century films are different from post-structuralist Lacanian theories, which can be used to explore how the symbolic order defines the mother. There are links between psychoanalytic theory showing unconscious need for closeness with the mother’s body and the basic cinematic institution. Kaplan (1992: 28) believes that “cinema is the closest in the realm of the Symbolic to access to the maternal body, which is impossible after the pre-Oedipal period”. Freud’s Theories of Motherhood: Freud’s theories revolutionized nineteenth century motherhood discourses. Freud’s theory of how the baby comes to know itself as an entity separate from its mother introduced the concept of Subjectivity, a term used by Lacan. Freud identified the difference between the level of fusion with the mother in the pre-Oedipal stage and the post-Oedipal level of self-hood. He hypothesized that both male and female children learn to use language as the means for replacing loss of the mother who recedes into the unconscious (Cherniavsky, 1995). Essentialism and Nonessentialism Subjective Theories of Essentialism: Subjective essentialism refers to lay theories stating that members of a given group, over and above their similarity of surface, share with one another deep underlying features that characterize them and differentiate them from members of other groups (Haslam et al, 2000). These deep underlying features assumed to be common to all group members define what is called ‘the essence’ of the group. Lay theories of essentialism may differ in various cultural settings (Demoulin, et al: 2006). This means that essentialist definitions of motherhood cannot remain the same. Lacan’s Nonessentialist Approach to Identity Formation: Lacans account of identity formation suggests that identities are produced “from the outside” that is: through cultural forms and practices. At the heart of Lacan’s anti-essentialist, constructionist explanation of identity are two key concepts: the “mirror phase” and the “symbolic” order, states Homer (2004). Lacan’s move from concern with biology (Symbiotic theory) to concern with language resulted in more attention to the pre-Oedipal stage. Lacan stresses on how sexual difference operates on the unconscious level, namely “imaginary”, as set in opposition to the level of culture, the law and language that he calls the Symbolic (Homer, 2004). Lacan’s Theories of Motherhood: The “mirror phase” represents the transition between the pre-Oedipal and the phallic phases. According to Homer (2004) this represents early realization of subjectivity as the child at once clings to illusory oneness with the mother in the world of the Imaginary, and begins to be aware of the mother as an object distinct from itself. For Lacan this awareness of the mother as object is linked to the child’s awareness of its “mirror” self, its ideal image, as an entity also distinct from itself. In the Lacanian system, the child/ adult continues to desire unconsciously the illusory oneness with the mother he/ she experienced. But there are differences in the male and female fantasies and in the ways in which unconscious pre-Oedipal longings can be channelled. Thus Lacan’s theory focuses on the non-essentialist, powerful identity of the mother. Culture and media impact the conceptualization of motherhood in modern times: The Media’s Creation of Identity Perceptions According to Kaplan (1992), Representation of motherhood have been established by a variety of means: child-care magazines, women’s magazines, popular women’s writing, and popular Hollywood film. The connection between people’s media consumption and identity formulation is not easy to identify. Woodward (1997: 14) states that “representation as a cultural process establishes individual and collective identities, and symbolic systems provide possible answers to the questions: who am I?; what could I be?; who do I want to be?”. Further, popular culture plays a significant part in people’s lives. For example, films and television programmes portraying women in mothers’ roles make a significant impact. From their research study, Johnston and Swanson (2003) found that myths of employed and at-home mothers abound in the culture as a result of the media. From another research study conducted by Johnston and Swanson (2006), they found that although employment status (full-time, part-time or stay at home mothrer) glosses over important dimensions upon which mothers differ, it is, nevertheless, a useful categorization of how mothers define themselves and how society categorizes mothers. This is also observed to be a result of the media. There is a marked shift in the mothers’ self-identity from the self-sacrificing role of earlier times to caring for oneself. According to Foucault, self-renunciation had been the condition for salvation. Media single mothers today show us that through caring for themselves, mothers become better as carers. Juffer (2006: 48) states that, “Foucault points out that a person who takes care of himself, would by the same token be able to conduct himself properly in relation to others and for others. Care of the self is a practise of freedom, which makes it an ethical practice”. The Social Constructionist View In the theory of embodied subjectivity, “gender” refers to the psychological, social, cultural and political meanings that the bodily differences betweeen males and females: have in special social contexts. According to DiQuinzio (1999: 17), “social constructivism argues that gender is a result of complex social processes, including the care and rearing of infants and children, the development of personal identity, the division of labour on the basis of sex, and organisation of other elements of culture in the terms of the distinction of male and female”. Social constructivist theories of gender based on the sex or gender distinction do not provide an adequate alternative to individualism’s dualist account of subjectivity. If social constructivism theorizes gender as an attribute of a disembodied consciousness, then it accounts for the significance of gender in social relations, and the significance of women’s difference. However, it negates both gender and women’s difference (DiQuinzio, 1999). Thus the social constructivist approach helps in giving more significance to the the actual performance of the role of motherhood. The Difference Between Essentialism and Constructivism While essentialism sees identity or identities as fixed properties of the individual, various forms of constructionist or anti-essentialist approaches see identity and identities as unstable, fluid and with the potential to change according to the circumstances (Woodward, 1997). The dispute between both approaches claiming the main identity of motherhood, is analysed: The concept of essentialism appears reactionary or conservative, and that of constructivism liberal or radical, states Elshtain (1998). It is seen that the strong essentialists pass moral judgments, citing the need to make universal moral claims, and the equally vehement constructivists refusing to make such judgments, citing the helplessness of individuals in the face of their cultural upbringing. Neither approach seems entirely satisfactory today. The problem with constructivism is that it removes ones ability to take any strong political stands whatsoever, since it claims that there is nothing fundamental about a human person. There can be even be dispute among the non-essentialists on various grounds; for example, the “independent mother” of popular culture such as women’s magazines, and the poorly viewed figure of the single mother occur at the same historical point but illustrate two different concepts of identity. In the modern world, it is difficult to formulate an essentialist identity of motherhood. This is because, in the world today, in vitro fertilisation and surrogate motherhood are becoming common (Birchall 2007). Constructionism celebrates diversity, whereas essentialism denies our multidimensional traits and experiences. Essentialism is not a celebration of an individual’s facets, instead it forms a limiting factor, states Bohan (1990). On the other hand, Gottlieb (1999) argues that she does not find that constructionism allows for the “experience” aspect of identity, and finding diversity. To her, essentialism does not mean one mind, one experience, or one body. Instead, it allows for the framework from which to branch out. The implication of this argument for the identity of motherhood is that it is composed of both elements. Feminists point out constraints and oppression through gendered and sexist constructs such as motherhood, but they should recognise the benefit of the freedom to choose these roles and responsibilities. What women strive to achieve is this freedom, so that they may be further empowered with characteristics that they believe to be positive and worthwhile (Maushart, 2000). CONCLUSION: This paper has highlighted the different essentialist and non-essentialist theories of identity, and has discussed the reasons why motherhood is a contested identity. It has become clear that both viewpoints have strengths and weaknesses, and neither can be considered as the sole component of the identity of motherhood. Thus it can be concluded that both essentialist and non-essentialist theories hold true, and are integral to the concept of motherhood. REFERENCES Birchall, J. (2007). “Identity”. Web site: http://www.johnbirchall-economist.com/IDENTITY.doc. Bohan, J. (1990). “Social Constructionism and Contextual History: an Expanded Approach to the History of Psychology”. Teaching of Psychology, Vol.17, 1990. Cherniavsky, E. (1995). That Pale Mother Rising: Sentimental Discourses and the Imitation of Motherhood in 19th- Century America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Demoulin, S; Leyens, J. P, Yzerbyt, V. (2006). “Lay Theories of Essentialism”. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, Vol.9, (1), 25-42. DiQuinzio, P. (1999). The Impossibility of Motherhood: Feminism, Individualism, and the Problem of Mothering. London: Routledge. 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