Immanuel Wallersteins World System Theory and His Argument on End of Capitalism - Essay Example

Sur Supervisor Sociology Question: Immanuel Wallersteins World- System Theory and his argument on end of capitalism. A way back, Karl Marx was able to see certain inherent contradictions in functioning of capitalism. Immanuel Wallerstein argues that these contradictions still run high in world-systems though a broad political, economic and legal framework does exist in the current times. According to him, states and their functioning can be understood only in reference to the capitalistic world-system that prevails. Wallerstein argues that the world has moved a lot since the days of Marx; states not only support capitalist enterprising efforts by providing subsidized transportation and raw materials to them but also let them go scot free for their misdemeanors to creating pollution and spoiling the environment. It is also true that capitalism "has become increasingly global" (Ritzer, p.122). Entrepreneurs under this capitalistic set up do not undertake those activities where profits are not available. For example preserving forests, keeping air and water clean and so on. In actuality, states bear the costs of all toxicity capitalists create. States also help them in creating quasi-monopolies. Such enterprises rarely create what they consume. Vanishing forests are the greatest examples of rampant exploitation of natural resources. States do not recover the true cost of raw materials from them rather make needed raw materials available to them from other sources when get depleted. Wallerstein is right in his argument that free markets are not free in true sense. On the contrary, patent laws help firms to create monopolies and accumulate capital (Allan). In the new world scenario, a relationship exists between core and periphery economic states. Less profitable products are produced in periphery states by paying less to the workers. Thus, peripheral economies develop their own capitalist base. Over time, peripheral states attain a state of semi-peripheral state and begin following footsteps of the core economies. They also begin exploiting workers in the same sense as core economies are indulged into (Allan). While state attempts to hold its dominant core status, it often ends up losing its grip to other emerging nations. That is why they indulge into developing military power to maintain its hold over the world nations. However, the act results into a further decline due to tax burden they need to impose on their own citizens. Wallersteins argues that the cost of hegemony weakens their status within the world-system. For example, the USA bore the brunt of not only Cold War with the erstwhile USSR but also wars in Korea, Vietnam, Kuwait, Afghanistan, and lastly in Iraq. Time and again, emerging core economies such as China, Japan, and economically strong Western Europe continued challenging its core economic status. As if this was not enough, the US got a big jolt by terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 putting its hegemonic status in peril. Moreover, the formation of institution such as the United Nations has further weakened the prevailing world-system (Allan). While collapse of Ottoman regime in 1571, the beginning of Industrial Revolution in 1750, the Russian Revolution in 1917 were the transition points to shifting capitalist base from one part of the world to other, the phenomena has not halted, yet. Students’ movements, during 1960s, in several countries such as Poland, Germany, China, Japan, Mexico, Vietnam and the US have further weakened the capitalistic world-system. In such circumstances, three key factors, according to Wallersteins, would cause the demise of capitalism. The first is the sharp increase in the costs of labor and production that will result into decreasing profit margins; secondly, contraction of the middle class – responsible to creating a huge market base of a capitalistic system, and the third, which is the most critical – the environmental deterioration in terms of deforestation, ozone tear, climate change, global warming and raw material depletion at the rapid rate. These conditions will lead to underproduction – creating supply side constraints. These possibilities will impact the capitalistic system worldwide significantly causing the demise of capitalism (Allan). Question: Discuss how Queer Theory is generally situated within the standpoint theory and postmodern by focusing on its main claims and contributions to social theory? In recent years, while going into the matter of gender inequality, feminists have discovered more complex views about sex, sexuality and gender. While gender is taken as a personal identity, a social status, sex is considered a complex interplay of hormones, environment, physiology and behavior. Sexuality is not only socially constructed but a physiological and emotional phenomenon too (Lorber). In light of the complexities involved with gender and sexuality issues, radical and lesbian theories of women oppression, overtime, converged into standpoint feminism that criticizes and challenges the very basis of feminist research. They categorically state that womens view points are different from mens. Women conduct everyday work in a way that men do not. Womens view of the material world is real as it comes from the ground realities of everyday responsibilities. Only women – and not men can conduct more authentic research from a womans perspective after taking into account womens experiences. It recognizes the fact that perceptions of women come from their own experiences. Old traditions as well as cultural associations also shape up women’s perceptions. Socio-economic status is another crucial factor in forming perceptions. Gender differences, geographical locations, social factors all contribute to differing perceptions between men and women. Standpoint emphasizes that all life experiences and knowledge emerge from situations that men do not have access to due to established social norms and natural limitations. Standpoint feminism, thus, has moved from resistance to confrontation path (Lorber). While the standpoint theory devotes itself to understanding the perspective of oppressed or marginalized class, especially the women, the queer theorists tend to reinvigorate the very subject of sexuality and gender studies. Queer theory raises some of the fresh question pertaining to the relationship equation between power and knowledge aspects of sexuality studies. Postmodernism and queer theorists propose that gender is not only socially constructed phenomenon but even gender identity is also not universal (Weed & Schor). Since, 1990, queer theorists began questioning the gender roles and social divide on the basis of male/female, men/women and heterosexuality/homosexuality. Queer theory is not only about gender but about sexuality too. It further emphasizes that gender and sexuality cannot be categorized because they are unstable and fluid. Judith Butler’s comments are crucial in understanding queer theory: "People are free to consciously and deliberately construct the gender and sexuality they want" (Butler, 289). Similarly, postmodern feminists do not accept conventional assumptions about sex, sexuality and gender as they say male and female; heterosexual and homosexual; man and woman are simply roles that any individual plays. Postmodernism argues that one’s gender is decided – not by biological construct but by his or her behavior that how one talks, dresses or uses body. There is no permanent gender rather they accept multiple possibilities in sexes, genders and sexualities (Butler). Queer theory not only endorses the same argument but goes much beyond. According to queer theorists, one can be male and female at the same time meaning a transgender person can take hormonal treatment and grow breast without doing any surgery to removing his penis. This means that sexualities, sexes and genders can be as varied and numerous as one can imagine. In a way, queer is a standpoint from the different perspective and experiences that goes beyond existing gender norms sexuality, and sexual behavior (Butler). Standpoint, postmodernism and queer all strongly emphasize that gender difference and sexual behavior is not biological but socially constructed. The crux is that they all are not simple resistant but rebellion theories. Thus it can be argued that queer theory is generally situated within the standpoint and postmodernism as far as its claims are concerned. Works-Cited Allan, Kenneth. "A primer in Social and Sociological Theory”. Sage Publication. Butler, Judith. “Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity”. New York: Routledge. Lorber, Judith. Feminist Theories and Politics. 4th ed. Oxford University Press. Ritzer, George; Stempnisky, Jeffrey. Contemporary Sociological Theory and Its Classical Roots. Weed, Elizabeth; Schor, Naomi. Feminism Meets Queer Theory. Indiana University Press. Bloomington. Read More