Contemporary Social Theory and Modernity - Essay Example

149684 Contemporary social theory and modernity are interconnected and interrelated and a research cannot be conducted without help from both subjects. Present day Social theory, according to Craib (1984) is like 'cutting a path through the jungle' and according to Anthony Giddens, perhaps the most prominent of all, the present situation is a veritable Babel. There is a lot of confusion bordering to chaos, mainly because there is a lot of dogmatism, wild assertions and misrepresentations prevailing in the field. Over-simplification of some of the sound theories has diluted their dimensions beyond recognition. This means that further ongoing research is necessary in the field and that research cannot be conducted in isolation of one another. Modernity still relates to the use of theoretical frameworks to explain social patterns, frameworks. On the other hand, contemporary social theory is different from pure Sociology, but plays a major role in Anthropology, Sociology and Economics. Pre-classical social theorists include St. Augustine, Confucius, St. Aquinas, and classical theorists include Auguste Comte. Comte is considered to be the father of Sociology, by starting the theory, 'Social Evolutionism'. In the 19th century, three theories gained prominence: Social Darwinism, Social Cycle Theory, Marxist Historical Materialism theory. Herbert Spencer, who coined the phrase "survival of the fittest", was followed by Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, both highly regarded in the field. Contemporary Social Theorists represents some of the classical theories, Multineal Theories of Evolution, Neo-Marxism. They have two approaches, Marxian Materialist approach and the Structural Functionalist Approach. The first approach naturally belonged to Karl Marx and the second, is developed from the works of Comte and Durkheim. It is also noted that contemporary social theorists are standing on the shoulders of giants in sociology. Contemporary social theory has five major branches: conflict theory, functionalism, phenomenology, interactionism and rational choice. They cover family, society (micro and macro), work, power, freedom, discrimination, oppression, fight against evils, social geography etc. Here human behaviour is seen part of society behaviour by interests vs. motivation by values. There is an urgency of completing sociological research and theories could not be ignored in the process as it guides the research. Modernity, the term which describes being modern, mainly applies to the period of 1910-1960 and later, and it has developed over many periods and achievements and inventions. Industrialisation, age of discovery, Renaissance, reformation and counter reformation, age of reason, English Civil War, French Revolution, American Revolution, the Enlightenment, printing press, the Romantic Era, the Victorian era, rise of capitalism, socialism, representative democracy, science and technology, social movements, urbanisation, Russian Revolution, the modern era, mass literacy, First World War, Second World War, mass media, post-modern era, all in some way or other paved way to modern times and modernity by evolving the society. Modernity also brought infant mortality, environmental problems, starvation, conflicts, dreadful wars, holocaust, pollution, climate change, and genetic engineering, disappearance of species, crime, atomic bombs and nuclear arms race and hence, everything about modernity has not been good for society or mankind. Relationship between contemporary social theory and modernity is well defined. Today's people are modern and hence, they are related to modernity and contemporary social theory. Our contemporary concerns, our efforts to free ourselves out of traditional paradigms, achieve liberal individualism with the right amount of concern for fellow-humans, shaking off constraints placed by religion, race, economy, tyranny and superstition are all part of both. Right ambitions with unlimited freedom that does not encroach into another's space should be the outcome of this relationship. Earlier theories interpreted freedom in understanding the social change and contemporary theories have the 'at last arrived' perception. "These issues lie at the heart of the theoretical debate concerning the prospects of modernity. On a substantive level, the debate hinges around charting the various changes that western societies have been undergoing in the post war period," O'Brien et al (1998, p.5). Modernity relates in many ways in issues like Reflexivity and rationality, life politics and institution power, universalism and 'difference', according to Anthony Giddens (Structuration Theory), and his theory draws from wide ranging topics like developmental psychology, methodology, poststructuralism, psychotherapy, Marxism, ethno-methodology, functionalism, hermeneutics, psychoanalysis etc. "Giddens proposes that three interconnected processes - social reflexivity, globalisation and detraditionalisation - are changing social life to such an extent that existing social and political institutions are unable to respond adequately to increasing risk, uncertainty and proliferation of lifestyle choices that modernity brings," (O'Brien, p.6). Modernity has been a relative term that could be applied to any point of time, because every space of time is modern for the people who live in it and today's modern society will be regarded as ancient society centuries later. Hence, modernity is a historical condition that connects with the Sociology and Social theory of that particular time. . "Modernity, for Giddens, is precisely a historical condition of difference: a displacement of the past and its tradition, natural and metaphysical reference points. That this condition of difference has been accepted in sociological theory can hardly be contested," (O'Brian, p.22). This is nothing new. Actually it was already mentioned by Rousseau in his writings. Writing introduction to his book Social Theory and Modernity, Luke (1990, p. 11) says: "Given the discursive focus on Nature and participatory democracy in contemporary ecological politics, I argue that many of Rousseau's insights are as suggestive today as they were two centuries ago." Social theorists acknowledge that present modernity has reached its limits. 'But in their view, the project of modernity has not imploded; it has been radicalized and renewed.1' Modern society has shown greater plasticity than anticipated. Modernity might be bringing narcissism along with individualism. It also has wide normative implications and depends on history and evolution and thus enhances the functions of social theory. "The task of social theory today must therefore not be to provide final answers to the ethical questions which confront us; it must be to facilitate the process by which individuals and communities can search for those answers themselves," (Dodd, 1999, p.194). According to Gidden's theory, modernity is dynamic, has scope, intensity and hence, is very different from earlier social orders. He argues that it has time and space on its side and has reflexive character. He says that the mechanized and technological industrial production, wage labour, significance of commodity including labour is unique to our civilization. "According to Giddens, these organizational forms, and thereby modernity, evolve through the interaction among a number of institutional dimensions, those being capitalism, industrialism, surveillance, and control of information by the nation-state, and finally the development of military power, including the successful monopoly of the means of violence and the industrialization of war," Kaspersen (1995, p.85). To reach present modernity, it was a continuous travelling from simple societies to more modern societies and there was unbroken changes in social relationships, personalities and interaction between personalities and society. Today personality is regarded as a system as against social system. This does not mean that modernity has not brought in any personal failures, because failure and resistance against transformation is inherent in people belonging even to modern society. "The pursuit of the transformative solution faces two obstacles, which are also riddles. The first embarrassment is the coexistence of constant resistance to all the transforming efforts of the imagination and the will with our failure ever fully to understand the sources of this resistance," Unger (1987, p.14). The discipline of Sociology emerged from the need of investigating causes of social change, consequences of disappearance of earlier order, and the emergence of new. Hence, the emergence of new modernity is one of the main branches of Sociology. Sociological theories have sought to characterise these changes and they make the changes cohesive in the framework of modernity. Every society needs to know the causal inspirations of constant changes that affect it. Some of the more prominent themes of social analysis are based on the social change. If social changes are not researched and answered effectively, it is difficult to measure, ascertain, and justify those changes. Social structural causes and social psychological consequences are part of society theory as well as resulting modernity. Applying of contemporary social theories for legitimating Modernity is absolutely necessary and is a part of ongoing social research. According to Bataille, even modernism has been unable to live according to its own rules outside society. "Batalle considered that it is essential to face social and existential reality as squarely as one can and not strive to elude the inevitability of one's fate. Looking for the reasons for existence has little meaning. The most important focus for social investigation is to understand how we are able to live within the limits that life imposes on us," Elliott (2001, p.22). Some of the theorists were closure to Marxism, seeing a future of existential and phenomenological Marxism, like Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Various contemporary theorists have offered explanations to modernity within their social theories. "The most original aspect of Heidegger's account of technology is his understanding of it in relation to the 'history of being'"2. According to Merleau-Ponty human beings are unique. He attaches more value to human beings than to the society. No doubt, society is important, but he feels that as it is made of human beings, their uniqueness and dynamism become part of society. What society reflects at any point, is the reflection of individual members of the society. He feels that they do not make revolutionary individual choices, but depend more on conventionalism, even though they are capable of shaking it off. "They are capable of both creative action and choice. But they are always situated within the world, anchored by their habits, and are never 'suspended in nothingness'3. Marcuse emerges as an important theorist of technology by providing dialectical model. He feels that societies are practicing unnecessary restrictions and rules and this excess would kill the creativity in society. Being a free thinker, he argues that restrictions would kill human endeavour. He opines that unnecessary restrictions on individual sexuality could have highly negative effect. "Marcuse contended that the current organization of society generated 'surplus repression' by imposing socially unnecessary labour, excessive restrictions on sexuality, and a social system organized around profit and exploitation.4" Goffman even though was regarded largely as a social critic; he was a social theorist too of a very high degree. Unlike Marcuse, he emphasizes moral obligations, but does so in a rather cynical way, calling most of the individuals as performers exciting criticisms that according to him ordinary people were "sinister manipulators". He gave importance to everyday social interaction of humans. Modernity is a part of this human relationship, because everyday interaction would not remain the same. As societies keep changing, human interactions and dealings, their needs also undergo constant changes. Modernity expresses itself in human transactions. Interaction amongst human beings a thousand years ago, would definitely be different from the present day interaction and there shows the evolved modernity in social interactions. "Clearly, Goffman's analytical focus is on everyday social interaction, and it goes without saying that he thinks that what goes on here has significant implications for the larger social order. At the same time, his work illustrates that the dynamics of social interaction are powerfully constrained by social structures that transcend the everyday realm.5" Modernity relates to modern times and modern society. Society relates to Sociology and Social theories to understand its depth, present and future. Social theories help sociology as assessing tools of social research. There is no social research that does not imbibe the contemporary social theories and the resulting modernity. In every society, these two areas will always remain interrelated as part of studying that particular society. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. Craib, Ian (1984), Modern Social Theory, Wheatsheaf Books, Brighton. 2. Dodd, Nigel (1999), Social Theory and Modernity, Polity Press, Cambridge. 3. Elliott, Anthony and Turner, Bryan S. (2001), Profiles in Contemporary Social Theory, Sage Publications, London. 4. Kaspersen, Lars Bo (1995), Anthony Giddens, An Introduction to a Social Theorist, Blackwell Publishers, Malden. 5. Luke, Timothy W. (1990), Social TGheory and Modernity, Sage Publications, London. 6. O'Brien, Martin, Sue Penna and Colin Hay (1999), Theorising Modernity, Refexivity, Environment and Identity in Giddens' Social Theory, Longman, London. 7. Unger, Roberto Mangabeira (1987), Social Theory, Its Situation and Its Task, Cambridge University Press. Read More