Stages of Human Development - Essay Example

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT There is no general theory of cognitive development. But one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). The theory concerns the emergence and acquisition of schemata-schemes of how one perceives the world-in "developmental stages", times when children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing information. The theory is considered "constructivist". Unlike nativist theories (which describe cognitive development as the unfolding of innate knowledge and abilities) or empiricist theories (which describe cognitive development as the gradual acquisition of knowledge through experience), it asserts that we construct our cognitive abilities through self-motivated action in the world. Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to a drive to explore their world. Their initial schemes are formed through differentiation of the congenital reflexes The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages. 1. Sensorimotor stage - from birth to age two years (children experience the world through movement and sene and learn object permanence) 2. Pre operational Stage - from age two to seven (acquisition of motor skills) 3. Concrete Operational Stage - from ages seven to eleven (children begin to tink logically about concrete events) 4. Formal Operational Stage - after age eleven ( development of abstract reasoning) Cognitive development is defined as development of the ability to think and reason6. Jean Piaget and Lev Semionovich Vygotsky were both pioneers in the development of the theory of the cognitive development component of Psychology. The way children learn and mentally grow plays a central role in their learning processes and abilities. By understanding the progression of cognitive development teachers enable themselves to better cater to the unique needs of each child. Both Piaget and Vygotsky were regarded as constructivists. Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that cognition is the result of "mental construction". Students learn by fitting new information together with what they already know. Constructivists believe that learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes7. One other similarity between Piaget and Vygotsky is that they both believe that the boundaries of cognitive growth were established by societal influences. Unfortunately, this is where the similarities between Piaget and Vygotsky end. The key ideas of Piaget's and Vygotsky's theory differ. Piaget believed that intelligence came from action. He held that children learn through interacting with their surroundings and that learning takes place after development. Alternatively, Vygotsky felt that learning happens before development can occur and that children learn because of history and symbolism8. Vygotsky also believed that children value input from their surroundings and from others. Piaget did not place importance on the input of others. Piaget and Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development also have differing opinions. While Piaget's theory has four clear stages, Vygotsky alleged that there are no set stages at all. The first facet of Vygotsky's theory is referred to as private speech, or essentially talking to oneself. Vygotsky found private speech to be important because it aided children in thinking through an issue and coming to a solution or conclusion. Private speech eventually is internalized, but it never completely goes away. Vygotsky's idea of a zone of proximal development is the second aspect of his cognitive theory. A zone of proximal development is the level of development immediately above a person's present level11. The zone of proximal development contains things that children may not be able to do alone at the time, but are on the verge of achieving. Vygotsky felt it was important to work within the zone proximal development to achieve maximum learning. Scaffolding involves encouragement and assistance in the form of advice and suggestions to aid a child in mastering a new concept. Scaffolding is the final piece of Vygotsky's cognitive development theory. By using hints and pointers from teachers, parents, and peers who have already grasped the desired concept, children are able to form their own path toward a solution and by doing this eventually to self-regulate, or think and solve problems without the help of others12. Teachers and school systems have been applying the cognitive development theories of Piaget and Vygotsky for some time. A good example of Piagentian learning could be set in a preschool classroom. During the preschool years Piaget views children as being in the Preoperational stage and as a result they tend to be egocentric. Therefore, it would be logical to talk about things with preschool age children from their own viewpoints as they will feel their experiences are the only experiences. During show and tell one child might say the ball that another child brought to class to share is for rolling while the child who brought the ball may feel the ball is better suited to throwing. Neither child is wrong in this instance, the ball can be used for both purposes, but they may think that because they each respectively like to roll or throw the ball that the other child likes to share in the same activity. A possible classroom application of Vygotsky's cognitive theory could take place in a first grade classroom. First grade students are often on varying levels of knowledge. Some children may already know how to read while others are still trying to master this concept. A good way to help the children who are not reading as well as the others may be to give these children help sounding out a word when they get stuck while reading a story. Cognitive development plays a key role in learning and thinking methods of children. Piaget and Vygotsky offer some incredible insight into the possible ways children learn and by using these theories it is possible to create a more conducive learning environment for each child. In Text Citations - 1- 5 - Gruber and Vaneche, 1977 6 - University of Chicago Comer Children's Hospital, 2006 7 - Hawai'i Department of Education E-School, 1996 8 & 9 - Slavin, 2003, p.30, 43 10 - Huitt & Hummel, 2003 11 & 12 - Slavin, 2003, p.44. References Hawai'i Department of Education E-school (1996). E-handbook for e-school teachers glossary. Retrieved May 13, 2006, from http://www.k12.hi.us/ehandboo/glossary.html Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Retrieved May 13, 2006, from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html Slavin, R. E. (2003). Educational Psychology: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. University of Chicago Comer Children's Hospital (2006). Children and adolescent mental health glossary. Retrieved May 13, 2006, from http://www.uchicagokidshospital.org/online-library/content=P02566 Read More