Effect of Gender on Identity and Social Relations in Contemporary Society - Essay Example

?Effect of Gender on Identity and Social Relations in Contemporary Society Introduction Gender as a concept is wide in scope. It has far-reaching consequences in the manner in which it is used. Given its scope, it can include or exclude certain entities wholly or partially. Starting from the individual, it covers the entire world. Agencies like the IMF, organizations like the UN, the EU, and the ASEAN are all gendered and have gender effects (Connell 2009, p. 130). While sex is a biological classification, “gender includes the social attributes associated with being a woman or a man in a particular society” (Gove & Watt 2004, p 44). Identity suggests active identity on one’s part; and one chooses to identify with a certain group (Woodward, 2004, p. 6). Nation as a term connotes language, culture, territory or any other commonality on which a state is formed. The concept of a nation is not only gendered, but also racialised (Hogan 2008, p. 8). Hence, an individual’s identity is an overlap of various ideas. Race, religion, gender, nation, class, age, geography and many other factors merge to form the identity of a single individual. This text concerns primarily with the effect of gender on identity and social relations in contemporary settings. Effect of Gender Gender affects identity and social relations in contemporary society in several ways. We look at gender relations from three perspectives. The dynamics of gender is based on the concept of patriarchy. In Theorising Patriarchy, Sylvia Walby (1990, p. 20) defines patriarchy as “a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women”. 1. Gender Relations at Home The relation between genders and their interaction begins at home. In terms of consumption, shopping has become a woman’s prerogative. Women are responsible for a majority of consumption decisions (Bradley, 2007). Housework includes aesthetics and emotions besides care taking. The style of the house, the presentation of food and that of living space are all part of the present day housework. This invariably puts the onus of domestic labour on women. Women are expected to work for the home without any monetary returns. This is the time that women are not gainfully employed. The support from men for such activities is at best minimal. A working woman, would hence, find herself working two shifts i.e. one after she returns home. The added burden would make her feel deficient in both the jobs. According to the Doctrine of Separate Spheres, home and work were two separate areas and men and women had separate qualities. This is comparable to a hunter-gatherer tribe where the men are hunters and women, invariably gatherers. The workplace was associated with competition, achievement etc. which were naturally attributed to men. Similarly, the home symbolized domesticity, purity etc. which were associated with women. Men were expected to work and provide for their families whereas women were expected to take care of the house and family (Wharton, 2005, p. 103). Cultural conditioning over the years also affects the expression of sexuality in males and females. While men are free to express sexuality, and are even encouraged to do so, women are expected to subdue theirs. A woman expressing her sexuality, whether heterosexual or otherwise, is regarded as a rebel or as transgressing the limits to her behaviour. Moreover, men try to control the sexuality of women, either overtly or covertly. Rape and domestic violence are means to achieve this control. Even reproduction is sometimes influenced, if not controlled by a woman’s husband or partner. Decisions like the number of children, the form of contraception to be followed etc are dictated by men. All forms of discrimination and violence have their origins in home settings. Domestic violence can take the form of incest. Herman and Hirschman opine that incest happens where the female has the least power. Male supremacy is the cause for most incest perpetrators being male and victims being female. For instance, the relationship between an adult male and a female child denotes the most unequal relationship in a father – daughter incest (Bart & Moran, 1993, p. 47). The family in the present day world has changed drastically. Infant mortality has declined, so has fertility. Contraception has empowered women in that they can control child birth. The concept of heterosexual marriage has undergone a sea change. Couples are opting for cohabitation than outright marriage. This gives women the power to reject relationships after examining them. This has freed women from the commitment of marriage. However, there has been a tendency towards same sex relationships. The advancements in the field of medicine have given gay and lesbian couples the opportunity for child bearing with the help of assisted reproduction. More and more couples are opting to remain childless and do not find children an important aspect of marriage. While infertility is regarded as unfortunate, voluntary childlessness is considered as deviant by fundamentalists (Walby, 2005, p. 138). 2. Gender and the Education system Patriarchy has a role to play even in the flied of education. As in the case of behaviour, there is also a set pattern considered conventional in the case of education. Patriarchy influences the subject chosen and differential educational attainment. Regarding choice of the subject, there was a division based on masculinity and femininity (Francis, 2000). Maths and Science subjects were considered ‘male’ subjects, whereas the arts subjects were regarded as ‘female’. The ‘male’ subjects were considered more difficult than the ‘female’ ones (Thomas, 1990). In a study, it was found that despite girls performing better than boys, they did not prefer for maths or science. As far as gendered attainment was concerned, teachers had lower expectations from girls. The boys used to dominate the classroom earlier. It was also found that more boys rather than girls perform at the extremes (Payne, 2006). The reason for better performance of girls is attributed to their hard work whereas an anti-school culture was the reason for the boys underperforming (Francis, 2000). Girls have done well academically due to the following reasons. Education as a system has changed. Firstly, teaching has been feminized i.e. it has been sensitized to the requirements of each student. Secondly, newer means of learning like the internet are being deployed. Thirdly, there are newer methods to assess the student’s performance. Fourthly, the mad scramble for marks has ended. Each student is encouraged to excel without being concerned about competitiveness. Fifthly, the initiatives of the 1980’s and 90’s have borne fruit now. Finally, every student gets the same opportunity which puts girls on centre stage (Walkerdine, 2003; Ringrose, 2007). However, this intervention has had its effects. There is a crisis of masculinity associated with it. Males were found to get fewer jobs and hence were less motivated to study. This moral panic has its consequences (Francis, 2006). Firstly, girls are not able to participate in ‘male subjects’ after the age of 16. Harassment and lack of confidence are the likely causes. Secondly, it justifies that males should be given more privileges than females. Thirdly, it diverts attention from larger gaps in achievements. In all these issues, there would be girls who are economically or racially marginalized. The media were found to transmit sexualized messages about women that would limit the opportunities in front of girls. The corresponding cultures about men were further found to reduce the opportunities among girls (Coy, 2009, p. 372). Girls choosing glamour model as their career gave them no scope for valuing the education they had had (Rush & La Nauze, 2006 cited in Coy, 2009). Hence, girls cannot think on intellectual or athletic or creative lines. In case of higher education, girls do better than boys. However, the choice of subjects does not change in any way, especially at the ‘A’ level (Abbott, 2006, pp. 65-101). Though the number of postgraduates is the same, twice as many women train for post-graduation teaching. It is a case in point that there are more females than males as Sociology students. In addition to gender, class is also a deciding factor when it comes to education. Income is the pillar of the concept of class. The place of residence, the type of nourishment received, the leisure pursuits that one indulges in etc. are some of the factors that determine the class of an individual. The academic background influences not only the choice of subjects but also the academic performance of the student (Fuller, 2009, p.7). 3. Gender and the labour market The job of a male is part of his social identity whereas women get their identity from family (Dex 1985). Hence, women in relation to employment have been studied less. Over the past four decades, the number of women in employment has increased steadily. Jobs like law and medicine are no longer a male preserve. At the same time, the number of men in mining, manufacturing etc has decreased. The growth in the service sector means more jobs for women. For instance, there is an emphasis on communication and ‘soft power’ i.e. feminine qualities. The question arises whether there is positive discrimination towards women. Women have to balance career and home in a way that men do not have to do. Working mothers are not able to claim that they are good mothers because they are working. The mother’s employment is thought to be opposed to the wellbeing of the child. Though there is a gap in pay among men and women, this gap is steadily reducing. The gap in pay exists due to various reasons. Women are usually found in low paying jobs especially part time ones. There are stereotypes about the type of jobs that women can do. Cleaning, caring, clerical work, cashiering, catering together known as the 5 C’s are undervalued and underpaid. Women could be caregivers or have a gap in employment due to maternity. Women have to take care of housework. There could be discrimination against women too. Women form the bulk of the part time workforce. The major reason for women opting for part time employment is their marital status and the amount of housework that they do, which is not the case with men. Part time jobs are associated with lower pay and lesser skill. Women with higher education levels are likely to work fulltime. Women working part time are likely to be married to lower status men (Bonney, 2007). Lord Alan Sugar opines that, since a woman might have a child, it is likely that she would take time off. Since one cannot ask this question at the time of the interview, the best thing would be to reject the candidate (Franklin, 2008). When women work in a male dominated profession, they cannot progress further in their jobs due to the proverbial ‘glass ceiling’. Men are considered suitable for leadership positions in so called ‘women’s professions’. The advantage they receive there is known as the ‘glass escalator’ (Williams, 2013). These two concepts ignore factors like race, class and sexuality which intersect with professions. According to the Rational Choice Theory (Hakim, 2011), women can choose between a career and domestic life. Contrary to feminist claims, men and women have different career aspirations and priorities. To give priority to family life, a woman may prefer a low skilled, low paid part time work. Moreover, full time work can be a disincentive for lone mothers and second earners. Though sexual harassment is unlawful and punishable under the law, it is prevalent in the work place. It is a ploy used by men to deny sexual equality to women at the work place (Cockburn, 1990 as cited in Abbott, 2006). Prostitution is one among many jobs that come under ‘sex work’. Sex workers are mostly women. Feminists argue that prostitution denotes the power imbalance between the sexes. Conclusion Post feminist discourses show that these are good times for women. Women have been participating in public spheres successfully in the last 20 years. Though some people’s lives have changed more than that of others, generalised inequalities still continue. ‘Formal’ equality in the public sphere has no influence on women’s roles in the private sphere. Research shows that there are clear divisions in the roles women take up. Women experience inequalities in the world of education and employment, as well as from the state. There is a need to understand how inequalities are inbuilt in the structures of society, which work together to subordinate women e.g. motivated by ideology of gender and identity. Men are as constrained by gender identity as women (Abbott, 2006, pp. 65-101). There is constant pressure to live up to the ‘breadwinner role’. Alternative masculinities are subordinated further, and the ‘gender order’ is reinforced (Connell, 2009). Hence, it is significant that ‘gender’ is not a category by itself. Rather it intersects with other divisions such as class, sexuality, ethnicity, age, disability etc. The more we study the field of gender, the more apparently its dynamic nature unfolds. References Abbot, P. (2006) ‘Gender’ in Payne. G. (ed.) Social Divisions 2nd edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.65-101. Bonney, N. 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