Family as the Fundamental Basis of Society - Essay Example

Introduction Family is viewed as the fundamental basis of the society. It has been viewed as the core aspect of social organization. Family is responsible for accomplishing important tasks in both pre-modern and modern societies. Earlier before 1960s, nuclear family was regarded as type of family, which is best suited to meet the demands of modern societies. In the 1960s, scholars questioned assumptions that family was suited for the demands of modern society. The Marxists, Feminists, and prudent psychologists exposed the weaknesses of family life. The changes in family structures and dynamics in the twentieth century have been incredible especially in North America and Western Europe. There has been paradigm shift from extended to nuclear family, rise in divorce incidences, decline in nuptial, and the emergence of new types of relationships. They include non-marriage cohabitation, decline in fertility rates, dynamic gender, living together separately, and cross-generational relations during the twentieth century. Households of single-motherhood, single pensioners, and unemployed couples with children continue to experience unequal distribution of income. These social changes in existing family structures have been aggravated by the economic, technological, and cultural factors. Families have been under duress due to increasing population, globalization, industrialization, urbanization, and changes in gender roles. The changes in existing family features have had demographic as well as social impacts. Diversity of households does not involve family decline. Notwithstanding the reduction in the number of traditional family households, opportunities for single-person households and cohabitation have been increasing. In spite of the improvement of income of poorest families in Britain, the overall inequality in wealth distribution was higher in the mid-1990s compared to any other post-war period. This paper will present a discussion of sociology and family. Part 1 of the paper will address the changes and variety of family structures in the 20th century with reference to Marxist, Functionalist, and Feminist Theories of social changes. Part 2 of the paper will present an argument whether family is under threat in the 21st century. The analysis of causes and consequences of marital dissolution with reference to differences in status/culture and changing gender roles will form the basis of the argument. Part 1 1.1. Variations in the family structure Family structures differ from one society to another. The nuclear family is the smallest family unit and is made up of husband, wife, and immature offspring. The vertical and horizontal extension of nuclear family results in an extended family. Feminists and Marxists have highly criticized the traditional family structure. Their perspectives have tended to underline the adverse effects of family life on women. According to feminist theory, family is regarded as an institution that encompasses power relationships rather than institution based on collaboration, love, and mutual interests. Men tend to gain more from family life than women do. Marxists theory supports feminist argument although they based their arguments on correlation between family and capitalism rather than the impacts of family life on women (Haralambos & Holborn 2004). Marxist feminists use Marxist theory although they view exploitation of women as a key phenomenon of family life. The functionalist perspective underscores the necessity for integration and harmony between the different sections of the society. A social system would be efficient if the parts of the system appropriately fit rather than abrade. The parts of the social system would be related functionally if they play a role in the integration and harmonization of the social system. Haralambos and Holborn (2004) observed that isolated nuclear family is suitable to meet the demands of the economic system. The isolated nuclear family appropriately meets the demands of geographical movement of workforce. 2.1. General changes in family-related behavior in the 20th century There have been changes in relational behavior. Empirical evidence shows that the age of first sexual encounter significantly decreased towards the end of the 20th century. The age of first sexual encounter among men tends to be less than that of women. This is because men tend to experience sex much earlier than women do. The United States and Western European nations tend to report similar figures in ages of first sexual intercourse. Premarital sex is general pattern of behavior notwithstanding the differences in the ages of first sexual intercourse. In spite of increase in the use of contraception, unwanted teenage pregnancies remain prevalent. Western nations experienced decline in birth and abortion rates towards the conclusion of twentieth century. The United States recorded highest teenage pregnancies during the same period. This may be attributable to the conventional approach to sexuality inspired by religion. It has shown negative attitudes towards sex education and information regarding the use of contraceptive. It has discouraged information and motivation towards contraception use in homes, media, schools, and the public institutions (Cliquet n.d; Trask & Koivunen 2007). There has also been increase in cohabitation due to delays in first marriage. Young persons have abandoned their parental homes to fend for themselves prior to cohabitation and eventually marriage. There has been an increase in the number of single person homes owned by young adults. Such young adults tend to engage in cohabitation or Living-Apart Together (LAT) arrangement prior to delayed marriage. Nonetheless, empirical evidence shows that cohabitation between unmarried individuals has been on the increase. Not only does cohabitation prevalent prior to marriage, but also after divorce, separation by unmarried couples or widowhood (Cliquet n.d; McRae 1999). There has been a significant decline in nuptial. Such decreases may be attributable to delay in first marriage. The overall rate of first marriage in Western Europe and US declined from approximately homogeneity to less than half. Moreover, there have been decreased rates of remarriage. McRae (1999) observed that decreased rates of marriage and remarriage should not be viewed as precedents for family disintegration. This is because of emergence of other forms of arrangements that seem to replace institution of marriage and remarriage with consensual unions and the fact that marriage and remarriage are delayed. The past decade had noticeable decrease in nuptial slowing down and sometimes becoming constant (Cliquet n.d). McRae (1999) observed that the growth of inequality of income distribution and changes in employment rates is due to changes in the relative balance between manual and automated job roles, and between employment in the service and manufacturing industries. Furthermore, the traditional industries have become extinct coupled with widespread introduction of new technologies and increased participation of women in the labor force. The increased participation of women in labor market significantly matches the ongoing exit of men. There has also been exponential growth of part-time jobs due to changes in the demand and supply of labor. This engendered increase in employment insecurity during the 1980s and 1990s in Britain. The changes in work nature and distribution have affected all families, thus affecting their ability and predisposition to work. There has been increase in one-person household across the various age groups. This may be attributable to the desire of young adults to be autonomous for work and educational purposes. This trend has been slightly altered in the recent years due to economic difficulties. This trend among older adults is due to increased incidences of divorce and separation as well as rising sexual variations in life expectancy. The rising divorce rates have engendered single-parent households, which are mainly governed by women. This may because some women have voluntarily chosen to be single or due to circumstances. Same-gender marriages have been legitimized and enacted in the recent decades. However, research data indicate that prevalence of same sex couple is restricted to certain regions. Moreover, the number of homosexuals is still very low. Many children experience at least one form of unions including single-motherhood, single-fatherhood, consensual unions, reconstituted families, and LAT-arrangements during their life course (Cliquet n.d; Hofferth & Goldscheider 2010). Hofferth and Goldscheider (2010) reinforced Cliquet’s argument that the increase in out-of-wedlock childbirth and marital breakdown during the last twenty decades has underlain increasing number of children who have experienced a variety of new forms of family life. Empirical evidence shows that early childbearing predisposes people to undesirable socio-economic conditions in households including instability of family, inadequate resources, and less social control. Many of early pregnancies were premarital although childbearing occurred during marriage. Most of these premarital births occurred during cohabitation. Young parenthood tends to be unstable. The commitment to financial provision of the family reduces the ability of young fathers to provide for their own human capital. Ruggles (1994) observed that the African-Americans are more likely to become single parents and live in extended families than whites. Part 2 3.1. The causes of marital breakdown The rise in the rate of divorce over the past forty years represents a major change in American family structure. The effects have been carried forward to twenty first century. This has resulted in single-parenthood, with considerable number of women and children experiencing some part of their lives in single-motherhood households. Bedard and Deschenes (2005) observed that divorce is much more common among couples who are less educated and economically disadvantaged. Women who undergo marital breakdown are likely to differ in immeasurable ways. The factors that increase the likelihood of divorce may also have negative effects on economic status and participation of women in labor force. Butterworth and Rodgers (2008) observed that mental illness could cause background divorce. Spousal relationships in which either a man or woman is mentally ill have higher probability of marital dissolution than couples in which none of the spouse is mentally ill. Psychiatric disorder is an antecedent for marital breakdown. Mental disorder is an adverse social consequence of spousal conflicts and dissatisfaction with marriage arrangement that occur prior to the actual divorce time. Psychiatric disorder and marital disruptions are a manifestation of childhood adversity. Kim (2010) observed that the increasing economic disparity increases the likelihood of marital breakdown. Towards the end of twentieth century, inequalities in individual and family incomes have increased remarkably, and the less educated couples tend to be disadvantaged with regard to income distribution. In view of strong correlation between income distribution and likelihood of marital breakdown, the less skilled or uneducated continue to experience decline in economic status and thus are predisposed to the double risk of marriage disruption. Education is therefore, often viewed as a near proxy to socioeconomic status. The current trend of education is an indication of increasing disparities between couples with varying levels of education. Clarkwest (2007) observed that dissimilarities in characteristics related to ideas and behavior play a major role in increased incidences of divorce among African American couples. Such spousal differences in traits result to incompatibility. African American couples tend to have greater propensity towards marriage breakdown than any other US marriage couples. This may be due to the love-trouble relationships, which are usually characterized by elevated degree of affection, as well as tensions that threaten their marriage. Empirical evidences attribute such high incidences to incompatibility concerning attitudes and socio-economic class, which underlie raised levels of interpersonal tension and divorce among African Americans. Health problems in marriages tend to decrease the quality of two-parent relationships. In fact, poor health represents an increased risk of marital disruption. Decrease in marital quality therefore, increases the likelihood of divorce. Concerns for HIV/AIDS and cancer by married couples increase their likelihood of divorce. The diminished marriage quality implies decline in marital gains that are perceived by couples. Health complications related to work may act to decrease family earnings and thereby imposing financial burden to couples. The high bills of health exacerbate financial stress on couples. Furthermore, poor health decreases physical and emotional intimacy between couples. It also decreases the amount of mutual and household activities, with one partner having additional responsibilities (Teachman 2010). Yabiku and Gager (2009) indicated that lower frequency of sexual encounters and satisfaction between married couples are closely related to higher probability of marriage dissolution. Relationship stability and quality between married couples is dependent on sexuality. Higher levels of sexual satisfaction in marriage have positive relationship with marital and union stability. Sexual intercourse facilitates social attachment between couples. Alcoholism is considered to contribute to the decline of sexual frequency within couples. Poor communication may also contribute to divorce. Amato, Looms and Booth (1995) suggested that married couples who were raised in spousal families marred with conflicts or experienced marital dissolution by parents tend to exhibit relatively lower levels of psychological and marital well-being than do other marriage couples. Kingston-Reichers (2001) reinforces this argument by stating that there exists a positive correlation between wife assault during first marriage and the likelihood of marriage dissolution. The emergence of dissimilarities between expectations and realized traits of the partners contribute to marriage breakdown. This is because such differences invoke the decision to terminate marriage. The unexpected increase in wife’s incomes can lead to divorce although positive surprises in husband’s incomes reduce the likelihood of marriage breakdown. 4.1. Consequences of marital dissolution Marital dissolution has consequences for both men and women. Gadalia (2009) observed that the economic well-being of an individual is influenced by changes in marital status. Alteration of marital status directly engenders duress to care for children and other family members and the capacity to participate fully in the workplace. Such consequences are carried over to the old age. There was increase in divorce rates and single-parenthood towards the end of the twentieth century. Women headed most of single parent families. Marital breakdown tends to have adverse effects on women and children than on men. McKeever & Wolfinger (2001) attribute this to unequal asset distribution subsequent to divorce, lower participation of women in labor force, and inadequate job skills. Increased participation of women in the workplace as well as amendments in the child support statutes has served to lessen the economic adversity associated with marital breakdown. Empirical studies show that men tend to considerably gain after marital breakdown although some studies indicated that men’s earnings may actualize smaller gains at short-term. The changes in gender roles has resulted in women earning as much as men do, hence contributing to household income. Men in such household tend to lose substantially. This situation has been exacerbated by prevalence of paternal and joint custody of children. This has reduced the disparity in gender earnings (Gadalia 2009). Children who have experienced marital breakdown have a higher likelihood of experiencing problems related to psychology, behavior, social, and academic than children who are raised in two-parent families that enjoy stable relationship. Children who are chronically exposed to violence between parents during childhood are predisposed towards adverse psychological and marriage instabilities in adulthood (Amato, Looms, & Booth 1995). Conclusion In summary, family has often been regarded as the virtual component of the society. Prior to the 1960s, nuclear family was viewed to appropriately meet the demands of modern society. During the 1960s, several theories of family life and structure were proposed to explain family life. The Marxists, Feminists, Functionalists, and Feminist-Marxist theorists criticized nuclear family and exposed the weaknesses of family life. The dynamics and forms of families have changed significantly towards the conclusion of the twentieth century. The complexity of households increased in the twentieth century. The households have also experienced increase in unequal distribution of income and changes in employment. Gender roles have changed with more women participating in labor market. The unequal distribution of wealth has increased chances of marital breakdown. Reference List Amato, P. R., Looms, L. S., & Booth, A. (1995). Parental Divorce,Marital Conflict,and Offspring Welll-being during Early Adulthood. Social Forces , 73 (3), 895-915. Bedard, K., & Deschenes, O. (2005). Sex Preferences, Marital Dissolution, and the Economic Status of Women. Journal of Human Resources , 40 (2), 411-434. Butterworth, P., & Rodgers, B. (2008). Mental health problems and marital disruption: is it the combination of husbands and wives’ mental health problems that predicts later divorce? Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology , 43, 758-763. Clarkwest, A. (2007). Spousal Dissimilarity, Race, and Marital Dissolution. Journal of Marriage and Family , 69, 639-653. Cliquet, R. (n.d). Major trends affecting families in the new millennium: Western Europe and North America. Chapter , pp. 1-40. Gadalia, T. M. (2009). Impact of Marital Dissolution on Men’s and Women’s Incomes: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage , 50, 55-65. Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2004). Sociology : themes and perspectives. 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Journal of Marriage and Family , 72, 919-932. Trask, B. S., & Koivunen, J. M. (2007). 5:Trends in Marriage and Cohabitation. In B. S. Trask, & R. R. Hamon, Cultural diversity and families : expanding perspectives (pp. 80-99). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Yabiku, S. T., & Gager, C. T. (2009). Sexual Frequency and the Stability of Marital and Cohabiting Unions. Journal of Marriage and Family , 71, 983-1000. Read More