The Gender Gap within Statistics of Crime - Research Paper Example

? Gender and Crime Due to recent studies regarding the gender gap within statistics of crime, felony has been highly associated with the male domain of society. This paper has been written to explore the possible truth behind the presumed notion through some of the functional definition of gender in society. By defining gender as both a social institution, something that is present and constant but is flexible enough to survive change in society, and a form of interaction that legitimizes the later by sustaining the social group itself, gender becomes something that hold significance in society rather than an idea that validates an individual’s capacity to deconstruct through personal choice, thus, the study of gender is crucial for understanding the criminal system. It also gives sample researches that uphold the idea that the functional definition of gender affects individual’s self perception. This article also slightly discusses the shift when interaction between gender and crime changes when a third factor is put into account. Keywords: crime, gender, masculinity, Gender and Crime As a complex species capable of higher organization and sentience compared to other animals in this planet, man have been able to create a different social constructs to better serve his purpose and improve the overall functionality of society itself. Society is governed by particular directives and norms with which majority of the cohorts have agreed upon. As Goffman (1967) would have it: “A rule of conduct may be defined as a guide for action, recommended not because it is pleasant, cheap, or effective, but because it is suitable or just. Infractions characteristically lead to feelings of uneasiness and to negative social sanctions. Rules of conduct infuse all areas of activity and are upheld in the name and honor of almost everything. Always, however, a grouping of adherents will be involved – if not a corporate social life - providing through this a common sociological theme. Attachment to rules leads to a constancy and patterning of behavior; while this is not the only source of regularity in human affairs it is certainly an important one. Of course, approved guides to conduct tend to be covertly broken, side-stepped, or followed for unapproved reasons, but these alternatives merely add to the occasions in which rules constrain at least the surface of conduct.” However as with any group that operates in specific parameters, there are individuals bound to breach certain protocols whether it be forced upon by necessity or to own compliance. One particular example of breeching such standards is executing acts of crime. There are numerous factors that contribute to the causality of committing felony. For an organization such as a society to progress and develop, it must form an understanding of how its institutions become a factor for its constituents in fulfilling their respective obligations. One interesting aspect of society that can be studied is gender and its profound role in crime. When pondering gender as one of the facets that affect crime in society, several questions come into mind. What is the most prudent definition of gender in society? Given the working on the definition of gender, how is it related to crime? What have recent studies contributed towards the development of perceived gender gap in crime statistics? Gender can be considered as an institution that exists within the society and implies a certain level of organization regarding the segregation of the males and the females. Having recognized the biological and functional differences between these two very distinct but equally important entities of human species, categorization of individuals within a society as masculine and feminine was eventually formulated. There are several theories regarding the nature of gender and its position such as societal function, societal criteria or as an individual identifier separates it from the fundamental definition set by biological science. Among these theories of gender it can personally be considered that the concept of gender as an institution in society as the most feasible one and that it is an unavoidable activity that is accomplished by every individual in society. According to Martin (2004), gender can be firmly classified as a social institution because it satisfies the general scheme of the later. She asserts that gender can be defined as an institution not only because it satisfies some of the criterions but also in doing so, helps sociologists develop a better understanding regarding its contribution and interaction to other recognized institutions and support more existential examination and variation of the concept. Another definition of gender entails that it is something that cannot be attaint and or is subjectively imposed upon and individual. Rather, it is an activity or action which involves individuals of different gender performing their respective parts that aide in maintaining legitimacy of institutional arrangements devised from sex categories. Conversely, formation of categorically correct male and female within society was accompanied by an intrinsic development of unavoidable sex-category consequences. Based on West and Zimmerman (1987) study: “sex category is used as a fundamental criterion for differentiation, doing gender is unavoidable. It is unavoidable because of the social consequences of sex-category membership: the allocation of power and resources not only in the domestic, economic, and political domains but also in the broad arena of interpersonal relations. In virtually any situation, one's sex category can be relevant, and one's performance as an incumbent of that category (i.e., gender) can be subjected to evaluation.” These conclusions is further substantiated by Buss and Schmitt (1993) in the study of human evolutionary sexual strategies wherein it was stated that “men and women’s different adaptive problems and different constrains on their reproductive success throughout human evolutionary history“, hinting that difference in strategies males and females of the human race have developed divergently to solve their respective reproductive obstacles. Thus it can be inferred that it also contributes to the socially accepted conducts. Having established gender as an integral and unavoidable component of society, its links to social behavior should be studied in order to progress insights regarding its effects. When considering gender both as an institution and an activity with which an individual is categorically identified, it is proposed that for an individual to be categorized as male or female, one should perform specific acts and behave in specified demeanor suitable to him or her, as expected by the society he or she belongs. Thus, males perform masculine activities or endeavors expected of a man while females fulfill their duties that are expected of the female role and expectantly display feminine behavior. West and Zimmerman (1987) stated that - “Doing gender involves a complex of socially guided perceptual, interactional, and micropolitical activities that cast particular pursuits as expressions of masculine and feminine "natures." Recent studies regarding crime and gender have concentrated in elucidating the probable cause of gender gap within crime statistics. As numerous earlier studies suggested, males impart majority of the felons being scrutinized and convicted by the justice system. Women were considered a minority within the penal system (Herrington and Nee, 2005, p.1). Earlier studies suggested that criminality was customarily associated as a part of the domain of men (Leonard, 1982). One specific aspect of crime and its interaction with gender that has been emphasized in several studies is violence, more specifically violence against women. In her book, Jackman (1999) discusses her findings regarding researches done on gender and violence: The exact incidence of violence between males and females is unknown, but there is widespread agreement that in such interactions it is women who are more likely to suffer injuries. However, when one casts a broader net across all social relations, the relative victimization of women recedes and it is men who appear more vulnerable. Overall, men are both the main perpetrators and the main victims of physical violence, but women appear to be more at risk of victimization in relations involving intimate, private, or sexual interactions with men. Clearly, the woman's body is contested terrain, with many parties having a strong interest in controlling it. On this pivots both the protection of women from some forms of violence and their disproportionate victimization from others. In addition, women themselves do not abstain entirely from committing violence… Perhaps because violence against women, especially that taking place in intimate relationships, was overlooked by scholars for so long, much of the literature on gender and violence in the past 20 years has focused exclusively on violence against women. In her analysis of several works regarding gender and violence, she has considered the value of past research regarding the victimization of women, however she also pointed out that there were limitations that have ultimately affected the current researches done on the subject in that early studies have established a limited field of view. Jackman (1999) states that the idea of women comprise the majority of victims of violence is unfounded due to the fact that females are basically dominated, thus it is more likely that violence ensue between males. She also reflects on the susceptibility of women to violence in the form of bodily modifications (as cited in Engles, [1884] 1972): These widespread practices are usually depicted as symptoms of misogyny, aimed at maiming, crippling, and weakening women. However, it is also possible that the high value placed on women's sexual and reproductive attributes is a powerful motivator to both men and women to package women's bodies in ways that exaggerate their biological distinctiveness and highlight women's contract with men to exchange exclusive sexual access rights for long term economic support of women and their offspring. Further dissection of the interaction between violence and gender by Jackman (1999) indicating that: The relationship between gender and violence thus appears to be molded by two primary factors: widespread social preoccupation with the proprietary protection and control of women's sexuality, and the respective physical strength of men and women. Men are the main perpetrators and victims of nonsexual, interpersonal violence (homicides and assaults), lethal violence against oneself (suicide), and various forms of nonsexual, corporate violence (in war, the workplace, the consumer marketplace, mob violence, and state-mandated punishments). It is only sexual violence that men direct primarily at women. This gives the idea that violence is an inherent interaction between genders rooting from the difference in sexual strategies employed by males and females. Violence as a crime is defined based on culture and legislation. Not all forms of violence are considered crime; this is taken in the context of biological sexual strategies. Another study suggests an alternate explanation regarding crime and women taken in the perspective of increased feminine awareness. Based on the study conducted by Herrington and Nee (2005): “One explanation has proposed that masculinity and crime are inherently linked, and apparent increase in female offending in recent years has led some to conclude that this must be the result of women’s increased masculinity… Results found that offenders perceived themselves as possessing significantly more masculine characteristics than non-offenders, and that violent offenders perceived themselves as the most masculine. Specifically, more offenders perceived themselves as glamorous, adventurous and rude, and more violent offenders thought of themselves as aggressive. Perceptions of a ‘typical women’ were also measured in an attempt to measure how different participants’ viewed themselves from other women. All of our women saw ‘her’ as more feminine and less masculine than themselves. “ Their study suggested the idea of women becoming more masculine through recent years, evident through the increase of women committing felony, has a possibility because the data suggest that the inmate’s self perception regarding gender has been altered due to crime itself. Women who are had been convicted have in fact identify themselves as more masculine compared to that of their own account of the ideal feminine gender. Their knowledge of femininity and masculinity has affected their respective self perceived gender. Though this is so, it should be noted that Herrington and Nee (2005) have not fully concluded such issue for there are other features of both genders to be explored further and that majority of the self perceived masculine characteristics are negative ones. This claim can be backed up by Stets and Burke (2000) who states in their study that: “Third, we know very little about subcultural, cultural, and cross-cultural differences in the meanings that are attached to femininity and masculinity. Most of what we know concerns western cultures, yet as Margaret Mead discovered long ago, these patterns are not universal. We need to investigate the variation in the meanings of being masculine and feminine. Such studies may help us understand a society's division of labor, differential power and status structure, in general, how society's privileges and responsibilities are allocated. To modify the social system may mean first modifying individual beliefs about masculinity and femininity.” Assuming that initial data indicating increased self perceived masculinity among women offenders is concrete evidence that crime and criminality, in relation to gender, is undoubtedly linked to the male gender would be erroneous, taking into account that gender exists both as an institution and a form of validation through accomplishment of roles, the variability of masculine and feminine definition across different cultures and societies (Stets and Burke, 2000). Further more, another study conducted by Thompson in 2008 concerning gender, mental-illness and crime have revealed that both men and women have tendencies to increase criminal behavior when depression and under the influence of substance abuse. However, women have problematic case compared to men as the research finding indicate that although augmented rehabilitation is suggested for women who are depressed and engage in abuse of illegal substances, this approach appear to have little effect towards reducing crime rates. Consequently it has been found to increase crime rates. Looking upon this research, it can be inferred that when discussing the interactions between crime and gender, other factors can reveal that the dynamics between the two can be altered. Both genders have been to found to respond parallel to one another to the same stimulus but presents different response to when the stimulus is reversed. As these study show, there is a link between gender and crime and when other factors are considered, the interactions between the two is somewhat changed. When looking upon the functional definition of gender in society both as an institution and as interaction rather than something that is chosen to be expressed, stereotypical perception of masculinity and femininity in society can tend to influence the association of crime with the domain of man due to the inherent nature of men and women. References Buss and Schmitt (1993). Sexual Strategies Theory: An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating. Psychological review, 100(2), 204-232. Engels, F. (1972). The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State. New York, International Publishers. Goffman. (1967). The Nature of Deference and Demeanor. Interaction Ritual. New York Anchor/Doubleday. Herrington and Nee. (2005). Self-perceptions, Masculinity and Female Offenders. Internet Journal of Criminology. Jackman M. 1999. Gender, Violence, and Harassment. Handbook of the Sociology of Gender. Academic/ Plenum Publisher, 275-317 Martin. (2004). Gender As Social Institution. Social Forces, 1249-1273. Steffensmeier and Allan. (1996). GENDER AND CRIME: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending. Annual Review of Sociology, 22, 459-487. Stets and Burke. (2000). Femininity/ Masculinity. Department of Sociology, Washington State University. Thomphson. (2008). Gender, Mental Illness, and Crime. Final Technical Report Portland State University, Department of Sociology. West and Zimmerman. (1987). Doing Gender. Gender and Society, 1(2), 125-151. Read More