Addiction in Today's Society - Essay Example

? Addiction in Today’s Society Introduction Drug addiction constitutes a social problem of great importance to the contemporary American society. A large proportion of the population in the United States misuses alcohol and illicit drugs to the extent that their use causes significant health, economic, and family consequences or results in a physical dependence on the substance. Researchers have found that adverse consequences of drug and alcohol use are most common among those who continue use in adulthood (Wisdom 24). The consequences of substance abuse and dependence are numerous and diverse, including health, cognitive, and emotional problems at the individual level as well as economic and criminal problems at the societal level (Wisdom 20). Socioeconomic Status In general, socioeconomic status (SES), usually indicated by income, occupation, and education level, has been found to be inversely related to drug and alcohol use disorders. However, some of the findings have been mixed, especially when SES is examined as an antecedent (i.e., SES in childhood or adolescence) rather than as a correlate of adult substance use disorders (Vega & Seligman, 130). Income Level According to research studies, income is inversely related to current use (past month) of any illicit drug as well as lifetime dependence (NIDA ‘Director's Report to Council’ 1). Further, researchers have found more problems from drug and alcohol use among those who are economically disadvantaged (Nichols 309; Epstein 1). In contrast, researchers have shown that alcohol consumption increases with affluence (Smart & Murray, 297), and studies with adolescents have found that drug use was higher among those with more spending money (Maddahian et al., 65; Mills & Noyes 231). Similarly, the types of drugs used in adolescence are related to cost. Some research findings suggest that low income may have more of an impact on drug and alcohol abuse among Blacks than Whites (Jones-Webb et al. 625). For example, Jones-Webb and colleagues found that among the less affluent, Black men reported more adverse consequences from drinking alcohol than White men; however, they found that among the affluent, the problems were greater among White men than Black men (Jones-Webb 626). Educational Attainment Education level, a separate indicator of socioeconomic status, has had a more consistent inverse relationship with drug and alcohol abuse. For example, research study found that education was inversely related to drug and alcohol dependence (Crum and Anthony 41). Drug and alcohol disorders have been associated with low educational achievement among both African American and White populations (Crum and Anthony, 46-51). Analyses of NHSDA data found that African Americans who dropped out of high school were an estimated two times more likely to have injected drugs than African American adults with no history of IDU (Injective Drug Users) (Obot et al. 177). Gender As mentioned earlier, several national studies have found that males report more drug and alcohol use and dependence than females (SAMHSA 1). For example, according to 2005 DAWN data males (361.2 per 100,000) are more likely than females ((192.1 per 100,000) to report any lifetime substance abuse or dependence (SAMHSA 1). Even among substance users only, rates of lifetime dependence were higher among males than females. Not only does the prevalence of substance abuse differ by gender, but the trajectory to dependence is different for males and females men (McCabe et al 76-79). In terms of consequences, one study reported that although males report more legal problems and physical violence as a result of alcohol abuse than females, both genders suffer similar levels of occupational, academic, or household impairment due to drinking, and they experience withdrawal and medical symptoms at fairly equal levels. There also do not appear to be differences in reports on disruption to family or marriage (Lex, 121). Although very little is understood about the epidemiology of women's substance abuse (Clayton et al., 81-83), there are many hypotheses about why males and females experience drug and alcohol abuse differently. Explanations include factors at the individual, social, and societal levels. For example, at the individual level, genetic factors, medical and mental health problems, age of onset, consumption patterns, the course of abuse, and the attributions for the abuse vary by gender. Social factors include stress from family, employment, job, and abuse (Lex, 121-126). Finally, larger societal level influences include socialization, social status, and societal response/stigma (Lex, 121-126). Gender differences in substance use may be due to differences in exposure to opportunities to use drugs (Horton 6-13). Analyzing NHSDA data, Van Etten and colleagues found that males have more opportunities to use drugs than females. When controlling for opportunities to use drugs, there were very few differences in drug use between males and females. In a follow up study, these results were found in subgroups defined by age, race/ethnicity, geographic region, and urban status (Van Etten et al., 803-804). Specific theories have been generated to explain the relationship between gender and substance abuse. The Generalized Female Vulnerability Hypothesis suggests that female vulnerability, social control and labeling, and sex role norms explain why drug and alcohol abuse would have a greater effect on females than on males (Braude & Ludford 36-39). Others theorize that men are more vulnerable to certain behavioral and interpersonal consequences of drug and alcohol use (e.g., Robbins 117). Other evidence suggests that the drug and alcohol abuse differences between males and females have diminished in recent years. This has been attributed to a number of factors, including a reduction in the social stigma for females, the equalizing of gender roles, and the increased number of women in the workforce. Race There is evidence that Blacks suffer more problems from drug and alcohol use than Whites (Provine 15). Examining data from a general population survey of alcohol use, Herd (p. 181-182) found that although Black and White men reported similar quantity and frequency of use of alcohol, Black males reported more problems from alcohol use than White males. She speculates that this may be due to differences in the sociocultural context of drinking and in the material conditions under which black and white men live. In another study of drinking among Black and White men, Horton (p. 12) found that more blacks than whites reported health problems, symptomatic drinking, loss of control, problems with friends, and problems with relatives. Race differences in substance abuse consequences are also indicated by treatment and mortality data (Provine 10-16). McCabe et al reported that more Blacks need treatment for drug and alcohol abuse than Whites (79-84). Also, Black adults of all ages have twice as many deaths due to drug or alcohol related causes as do Whites. In short, although Blacks are less likely than Whites to initiate use of drugs and alcohols, those who do get involved are more likely to develop problems and dependence (Herd 80-82). Societal Cost In addition to these individual health consequences, there are extensive societal costs due to drug and alcohol abuse and dependence (NIDA ‘InfoFacts: Understanding Drug’ 1). Drug addiction is highly associated with involvement in the criminal justice system, with 52 percent of incarcerated women and 44 percent of men on parole or probation reporting substance abuse or dependence (Karberg & James 1). Public child welfare agencies are also affected by substance abuse, with 85% of states reporting that substance abuse and poverty were the top two problems facing families involved in the child protection system. Children of substance-abusing parents involved with the child welfare system are more likely to be placed in foster care than other children involved in the child welfare system thus placing tremendous financial and social burden on local communities (NIDA ‘InfoFacts: Understanding Drug’ 1). Further increasing the costs to individuals and society, children with substance-abusing parents are at greater risk to develop substance abuse problems of their own in later life, to experience emotional and behavioral disorders, and to engage in crime and delinquency. A recent governmental study found that the economic cost of alcohol and drug abuse exceeds $600 billion annually. This estimate includes costs related to prevention, treatment, general health care, reduced job productivity or lost productivity, crime, social welfare, and other societal expenditure (NIDA, ‘InfoFacts: Understanding Drug’ 1). Conclusion Drug addiction constitutes a social problem of great importance to the contemporary American society. The consequences of substance abuse and dependence are numerous and diverse, including health, cognitive, and emotional problems at the individual level as well as economic and criminal problems at the societal level. Furthermore, substance abuse is related to other social problems that interfere with the ability of individuals to participate fully in society. Thus improving the effectiveness of policies aimed at reducing substance abuse and its associated social problems is both timely and important. Work Cited Braude, M. D. & Ludford, J. P. Marijuana effects on the endocrine and reproductive systems: A RAUS review report (NIDA Research Monograph 44). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1984. Clayton, R. L., Voss, H. L., Robbins, C. & Skinner, W.F. “Gender differences in drug use: An epidemiological perspective.” In B. A. Ray & M. C. 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