Human Development in Social Environment - Literature review Example

Human Development in Social Environment Name Institution Introduction Interpersonal relationships builds an individual’s interests and human background. The human behavior is generally determined by the social environment and interpersonal relationships between people. Thus human development is mainly characterized by the relationships that a person has created over the years. These relationships begin when a person is born and emotional bonds created by their primary caregivers. It is however important to note that interpersonal relationships influences a person’ behavior and can result to either negative or positive outcomes as they develop. This influence tends to explain the varying individual reactions as is evident in their cognition, behaviour, social skills, emotional responses and personality. According to Sroufe and Jacobvits (1989, p. 198) early childhood experiences eventually lead to long term developmental results. The experiences gathered during a person’s growth, brings out emotional and physical behaviours which contributes to an individual’s structural growth and development. Schore (1994) asserts that the early experiences in the human life nurture a rather unique personality in a person. This is due to the ability of human beings to adapt to their environments in order to effectively deal with various vulnerabilities and become resistant. The theory of attachment is vital since it directly contributes to the human growth and social development of an individual. Bowlby (1973) explains the attachment theory as an important aspect of personality development that is nurtured by interpersonal relationships among people. As a result there are various psychological and behavioral outcomes that are developed by different attachment styles. Attachment styles vary depending on the needs of a person and the ability of the care givers to effectively meet these needs. According to Bowlby (1980), early child hood experiences with principal care givers models a person’s perspective about life, the world and relationships with others. This is due to the ability of a person to develop generalized ideas and beliefs about their social contexts. Attachment is viewed as a determinant of self-control whereby individuals tend to shelter themselves in relationships that promote their psychological, physical and emotional beliefs. Hence during the development and growth of an individual, a person is able to gradually stop being totally dependent on others and are able to manage on their own. The discussion in this essay is going to explore the concept of attachment theory in the growth and development of infants and children with disabilities. Further, the discussion will evaluate the various strengths and weakness of attachment theory in human growth and social development. Aspects of attachment theory and how they influence social work practices will also be discussed. The essay will conclude by stating how attachment theory has contributed to human development and their social environments. Attachment is identified as a key component that contributes to the general human development. Papalia et al., (1999, P. 250) explains the concept of attachment as a lasting bond between infants and their principle caregivers which nurtures a relationship that is inclusive and adds to the quality of the relationship. Attachments for infants include adaptive and learned values which contributes to their psychosocial and physical wellbeing. Ainsworth (1979, P.932), describes this style of attachment as "an essential part of the ground plan of the human species for an infant to become attached to a mother figure". Evidently, how attachment contributes to the quality of development in the life of an individual depends on the emotional bonds that were nurtured during their infancy period. A study by Ainsworth et al., (1978) categorizes attachment into four groups namely: securely attached (about 65%), avoidant-insecurely attached (about 20%), anxious-ambivalently attached (about 10%), and 5% of disorganized-disoriented attached. The parent-child relationship during development of an infant is described as the foundation of future relationships as this is the first bond a person forms while growing up. Thus a child will use this as an example while creating new bonds and relationship experiences. In other words, the kind of relationship that a child has with their primary caregivers will determine the success of future psychosocial relationships (Gearity, 2005). The attachments formed between parents and their children are categorized as either secure or insecure. Secure attachments provide children with a sense of security and self-assurance which enables them to overcome vulnerable situation in their social environments. For instance, secure attachment contribute to the psychological wellbeing of a child enabling them to become resistant towards, stressful and extreme conditions as they develop. Schore (2001, P.56) affirms that a secure child has the ability to self-modulate. This is because this individual develops psychological and neurological ways of responding to stressful or exciting environments without necessarily acting out. Children who have experienced a satisfying and secure attachment relationship with their primary care givers, are willing to explore new environments since they feel secure that their care givers are there to protect them. As a result, this child gains a sense of responsibility and independence while conducting themselves. According to Ainsworth et al., (1978) when a child is secure and comfortable with the emotional bond formed through an attachment with their primary care givers, it is easier for this child to develop into an independent adult and create new and positive relationships with their surroundings. Warren et al., (1997), argues that insecure attachments, produce individuals who are disorganized, full of doubt and always feel vulnerable. Children who are exposed to insecure attachments tend to negatively respond to this and eventually suffer from different forms of anxiety disorders. According to Thompson (2000), insecure attachments are unsatisfying to the needs of an infant as they develop thus nurturing an individual who might end up dealing with mental disorders such as depression, anxiety and uncontrollable negative emotional outbursts. Their behaviors are characterized by the nature of their environment growing up which is seen as unresponsive, apprehensive and annoying in relation to attachment (Warren et al., 1997). Therefore these individual develop into aggressive and non-compliant adults and do not respond well to change or new environments (Matas et al., 1978). Children who have encountered insecure attachments develop into individuals who are not ready to form new and lasting relationships. This is because, they are withdrawn from their surroundings and tend to be highly dependent on others. Karen (1994) states that children with insecure attachments grow up to be demanding, clingy and are easily overwhelmed by new environments. Thus, a child that has an insecure attachment with their primary caregiver will often develop into an adult that has unresolved issues from their past lives. Attachment theory is closely related to the social development of human beings since it influences the social and emotional aspects of a person’s life. According to Erikson (1950) psychosocial theory of personality development, an individual’s interpersonal relationships are vital in their growth and development since they are an interaction of the social and emotional domains in their lives. Therefore the relationships formed during childhood, are social developments which directly influence the social competencies of a person as they develop. Thus it is important to note that attachment theory contributes to the development of an individual by including the social and emotional environments of a child as they develop. Parents that have children with special needs are faced with overwhelming situations while nurturing their children. This experiences often become challenging and stressful for both the parents and the child. According to Vacca (2006), in most instances, these parents are faced with feelings of denial, guilt, anger and responsibility which can be translated when caring for their infant. Atkinson et al., (1999), explains that children with severe mental and physical disabilities often exhibit unusual attachment needs that require specialized care. As a result this interferes with the parent-child attachment process, whereby neither the parent nor the child is aware of how to interact with the other. Furthermore, the issues of proximity arising from this situations negatively contributes to how the parent is able to respond to their disabled child. A research by Holditch-Davis et al., (2000) revealed that parents of children with low IQs are hesitant to provide their children with cognitive stimulation to assist them. As a result these parents tend to be less social and are less concerned to assist their children in developing into active members of the society as compared to parents with children with normal IQs. Nonetheless, studies have revealed that “a high rate of insecure attachments among clinic-referred boys and their mothers”(Greenberg et al., 1997). The low levels of interactions between parents and children with disabilities contribute to increased levels of insecure attachments in both children with disabilities and their parents. A child’s surroundings and especially the relationships formed between a child and their primary caregiver, plays a very important role in the growth of the brain cells. Negative experiences between children with disabilities and their parents, such as insufficient stimulation by the parents, directly influences the cognitive and social development of the child with disability. This makes it even more difficult for this child and their parents to fit effectively interact with others and form lasting and productive interpersonal relationships. It is important for social workers to provide mental health services for children with disability and their parents. Social workers should introduce supportive and engaging environments in the community as a way of supporting both the parents and their children. For instance, social workers should ensure that hospitals have adequate resources to assist and educate parents on how to care for their children with disabilities as infants and as they develop into adulthood. This way, social workers are able to foster conducive parent-child relationships, positive environments for these children to grow up in and establish lasting relationships, and introduce appropriate interactive frameworks for the development of parent-child attachment. According to Vacca (2006), parents who have the task of taking care of a child with disability, maybe required to deal with psychological and physical needs of their child which they were not prepared for. Social workers are tasked with the duty of educating parents and primary care givers of these children on what to expect in terms of behavioral, psychosocial, emotional and financial needs associated with a specific disability. Vacca (2006), argues that the responsibilities of parents with children with disability are overwhelming and can lead to a mental breakdown for a parent. As a result this parent is not readily available to care and provide for their child as is required, negatively influencing the parent-child attachment. Interventions by social workers can assist in creating a sustainable parent-child relationship as well as develop mutual self-esteem. Parents should be encouraged to create emotional bonds with their disabled children and form secure attachments. Some of the ways through which parents can achieve this include: maintaining eye contact, stimulation, engaging their children in conversations, and being sensitive and responsive to their reactions. Social workers should encourage positive social and environmental interactions for parents and children with disability in order to encourage secure attachment. This can be achieved by educating the community on maternal education in relation to normal growth and development and proper interactive games for these children and their parents that contribute to their development through stimulation. Conclusion Primary caregivers play a critical role in the growth and development of a child. From this study it is evident that parents play an important role in nurturing the emotional and psychological developments of their children. Research has shown that the first three years on a child’s life is a determining factor on how they will develop. This stage of their lives, children are dependent on their caregivers and both negative and positive experiences shape their social developments. Therefore it is imperative to promote healthy and sustainable parent-child relationship since negative influences lead to inappropriate attachment by the child which they will take with them into adult hood. Evidently, insecure attachments due to poor parent-child relations, negatively influences the growth and development of a child throughout their life. For instance, the issue of mistrust between caregivers and a child hinders them from exploring new opportunities since they tend to be highly dependent and lack confidence in themselves. Feelings of insecurities and anxiety, clouds their judgment making it hard for an individual to leave their primary caregiver and start their own journey in life. Moreover, insecure attachment is closely related to delay in cognitive development, low self-esteem, emotional and mental disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among others. Disability in children, often leads to insecure attachment since a parent may assume that their children are incapable of forming emotional bonds with them. As a result parents may be withdrawn from their children denying them the required attention. Therefore social work practioners are encouraged to educate parents and their communities on how to respond to the needs of children with disability. References Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. American Psychologist. 34: 932- 937. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M., Waters, E. & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum. Atkinson, L., Chisolm, V.C., Scott, B., Goldberg, S. Vaughn, B.B., Blackwell, J., Dicken, S. and Tam, J. (1999). Maternal sensitivity, child functional level and attachment in Down syndrome. In J. I. Vondra and D. Barnett (Eds), Atypical patterns of attachment in infancy and early childhood among children at developmental risk. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46: 45-66 Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss. Vol.2: Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss. New York: Basic Books Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton Gearity, A. (2005). Attachment theory and real life: How to make ideas work. Retrieved From: http://education.umn.edu/ceed/publication Greenberg, M.T., DeKlyer, M., Speltz, M. and Endriga, M.C. (1997). The role of attachment processes in externalizing psychopathology in young children. In L. Atkinson, and K.J. Zucker (Eds.), Attachment and Psychopathology. (196-222). New York: The Guilford Press Holditch-Davis, D., Bartlett, T.R. & Belyea, M. (2000). Developmental problems and interactions between mothers and prematurely born children. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 15, 157-169. Karen, R. (1994). Becoming attached: First relationships and how they shape our capacity to love. Oxford: Oxford University Press Matas, L., Arend, R.A. and Sroufe, L.A. (1978). Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competence. Child Development, 49, 547-556 Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W. and Feldman, R.D. (1999). A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence. The McGrow Hill Companies, Inc.(pp.245-252). Schore, A.N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: The neurobiology of emotional development. Mahwah, New Jersey. Erlbaum. Schore, A.N. (2001a). Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal. 22:7-66 Sroufe, L., and Jacobvitz, D. (1989). Diverging pathways, developmental transformations, multiple etiologies and problem of continuity in development. Human Development. 32:196-203. Thompson, R.A. (2000). New directions for child development in the twenty-first century: The legacy of early attachments. Child Development, 71, 145-152. Vacca, J. J. (2006). Investiagtion of parent perceptions of raising a child with severe physical disability: results from parent interviews and implications for mental health providers. Best Practices in Mental Health, 2, 59-73 Warren, S.L., Huston, L., Egeland, B. and Sroufe, L.A. (1997). Child and adolescent anxiety disorders and early attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 637-644 Read More