Social Inequality in Australia - Report Example

Name: Tutor: Course: Date: Social inequality in Australia Introduction As a result of the need to provide a clear understanding of the persistent structures as well as the various transformations that contributes to the Australian social inequality, several authors have presented the latest approach to the increased problem of inequality in Australia. According to Greig, Lewins & Kevin (2003, p.02), a new approach to increasing issue of inequality is necessary. Although, several examples and the case studies used in the research are basically from the Australian perspective, it is evident that theoretical contributions in the study are universal. There is clear matrix that presents the facets in inequality such as sociological theory, empirical reality and the self-experience as the organizing features. In addition, they have also used the theoretical framework in synthesizing such features as well as expressions that present the problem of inequality. In their study analysis, Greig, Lewins & Kevin approached the inequality problem in Australia, based on the theoretical, experience as well as empirical evidences. As they emphasized “ The major rationale for applying a holistic approach for instance our theoretical, the self-experience and the empirical reality linkages resulted from our recognition of the difficulties experienced in earlier and prevailing approaches, which was the overlooking of either one or the entire facets of inequality in Australia (Greig, Lewins & Kevin p.256).” Most of the Australian inequality discourses operates at the structural levels, poverty measures, health inequalities, employment, income disparity and household tenure. Social class in Australia The process of identity development is continuous in the lives of Australians. According to McGregor (2003, p.53), argues that class is perceived as the positioning of people in the society, their attributes and how such people’s worth is perceived. McGregor also confirms that a number of economic factors are increasing impacting the various life chances of people in the Australian society, widening the ramifications for some other important social phenomena. Therefore, evidences continuously indicate that such class positions in Australia, are accountable for increased profound contributions in life chances as well as expectations among the Australians. He considers the issue of class as an outstanding, significant and powerful determinant of various aspects that concern social life. The class boundaries with particular focus on poverty boundary progressively constitute the exact barriers and subjectivities in individuals’ lives. Poverty level in Australia contributes to the development of underclass. Irrespective of slight increase or reduction of unemployment period, the long term period of previous unemployment makes a significant number of people to be unemployed as well as their dependants. Such groups of people in conjunction with some long-term social protection recipients create a virtually stable underclass. As a result, the poorer are left homeless, becoming the illegal immigrants and destitute. Several scholars such as Pat O’Shane, acknowledged that Australia has long way to go in achieving an egalitarian society. Indicating “unbridled, entirely-consuming capitalism” (Pat O’Shane, p.64) that dominates both the social as well as political thinking has been considered as the anathema and the contradicting factor to equality. Part O’Shane (1996, p.64) argued that it is very difficult to succeed in convincing the capitalists on the significance of addressing inequality as being a profitable idea. The current decisions on immigration numbers are the major characteristics of social inequalities in Australia. According to McConnochie, Hollingsworth & Pettman (1998, p.259), argues that racism attitudes are very dominant in the Australian society especially against the Aboriginal people. Studies indicate that racism has insightful effects on the Aboriginal housing, education, employment, imprisonment, health and land rights. In conjunction to the issues of racism, are the ideas of Anglo-American culture, capitalist system and English language which have dominated the Australian societies. Such issues are largely aggravating the marginalization of a large population of people who their life expectances largely depend on other cultures as well as traditions. Polarization of the group income among the richest and poorest is another aspect of social inequality in Australia. The Australian society is continuously moving far a way from egalitarian utopia (McConnochie, Hollingsworth & Pettman p.259). According to Evans, Susan (2005, p.39), suggests that attention is required in encompassing a detailed understanding of the existing relationships between the increased domestic violence and the entire forms resulting into marginalization within the Australian context. Some specific attention should be given to class invisibility as well as poverty given the contemporary discourse concerning domestic violence among mainstream population; such incidences are having continuous prevalence among the population groups who are subjected to poverty, exposing the bias of normal knowledge informing the domestic violence rules and practices in Australia (Susan p.39). Therefore, the prevention attempts must accommodate ways in which class, effects resulting from poverty links to some other social identity aspects in shaping the incidences that cause domestic violence among such people victimized as well as perpetrated by violence. Today, unemployment issue among the Indigenous Australians maintains at 20% and over. The Indigenous people in Australia are also subjected to massive over-representation in the entire state as well as territory prisons. In addition, some workers are only hired on 457 visas, they are considered in other jobs for the low wages, particularly in terrible conditions. Since they are non-migrants but guest workers, they are not entitled or possess the legal rights rendering them to super-exploitation and deportation threats incase they seek support from union organizations. Studies shows that some unions such as the MUA in Western Australia and the AMWU within Victoria are involved in the process of smashing such wage-cutting stunts practiced by employers (Craig McGregor & Peel p.78). The identified groups work by providing such individual workers with some social protection and securing them with jobs that have enterprise agreements. However, some other unions are sucked within capitalist framework as a result of perceiving those vulnerable workers as a way introducing competition with intentions to expose them to poverty. Craig McGregor & Peel (1997, viii) presented their work on class in Australia that reflects the Australian inequality and as an attempt to effective integration of the theoretical, empirical reality and individual experience. Craig McGregor in his book largely focused on the issue of class structure and on how it has contributed to the shaping of the Australian structured social inequality. McGregor claims “It is very difficult to understand the Australian lives without any reference to class (McGregor & Peel p.89).” It is not easy to live in the Australian society without realization of the various jobs in social classes, live in various sub-urbs, achieve education in distinctive schools, earn different incomes, speak in various ways, and undergo crucial differences in their privileges as well as inequalities. In addition, McGregor suggests that explanatory role of class can be considered as individual’s self-determining consciousness of the idea. He recognizes that it greatly enables the Australians to achieve the basic self-identification from own gender or ethnicity (McGregor p17). McGregor reinforced his idea through his claims that “class not only concerns self-identity but also in equality and if one is personally informed of class, what happens in life (McGregor p.89).” Peel also acknowledges the availability of increased inequality in Australia by arguing that corporate groups in charge of media outlets ownership in Australia do not aim at championing the objectives others, particularly in challenging the government to get involved in equal redistribution of the major resources for instance, wealth as well as income. In Australia, areas that greatly affect the life likelihoods such as health sectors, income, education, law involvement and work, are dominated by the structured social type of inequality. Studies indicate that among the Aboriginal people, high infant mortality is reflected compared in non-indigenous population (McGregor p.86). Such distinctive life chances, clearly illustrates the features of structured inequality which has widely attracted the interest of various sociologists, especially on issues which affect the life chances (Greig, Lewins & White p.21) Despite the current optimism, the gender inequality issues persist within the Australian society. Gender inequalities are reflected in politics, law reinforcement, the household, education and workforce, gender is not only used as a case of study in dichotomous organizations, but also applied based on inclusion as well as exclusion, inequality in life chances, choice restrictions and on issues concerning power or powerless (1997, p.158). In Australian society in general, women are socially inferior in duties compared to men, despite both having accessing to various positions. Studies analysis indicate that women being perceived as inferior to men, results into more restriction opportunities for women to interact socially with men. Therefore, women greatly differ in their social contexts compared to men. The middle Australia and its changing face Recently, the middle Australia notion is largely used by various academicians to categorize the middle-income earners. Such academic analysts have increasingly examined the negative impacts that exists as a result of the social changes among the middle classes referring to them as “suffering middle”(McGregor p.167). The two significant aspects which are related to the changes among the middle-income earners are the widening of income gap, increased wealth inequality and their shifts. The identified income as well as wealth shifts, corresponds to the changes in self-experiences among individuals who are affected. Table: income inequality indicators in ranges on Household Expenditure Surveys, Income Surveys, and various years Expenditure Surveys Income Surveys 1988-89 1998-99 % change 1989-99 1990 1997-98 % change 90-98 Weekly income at particular points in the distribution 95th percentile $1,770 $2,103 18.8% $1,967 $2,121 7.9% 90th percentile $1,533 $1,775 15.8% $1,709 $1,843 7.8% 75th percentile $1,155 $1,318 14.1% $1,326 $1,390 4.9% Mean $908 $1,011 11.4% $1,025 $1,073 4.7% Median $804 $890 10.7% $944 $956 1.3% 25th percentile $542 $586 8.1% $624 $625 0.1% 10th percentile $393 $410 4.2% $443 $449 1.5% 5th percentile $343 $327 -4.6% $364 $376 3.2% Ratios 95/10 ratio (very top/bottom) 4.5 5.13 14.1% 4.44 4.72 6.3% 90/10 ratio (top/bottom) 3.9 4.33 11.2% 3.86 4.1 6.3% 90/50 ratio (top/middle) 1.91 2 4.6% 1.81 1.93 6.4% 50/10 ratio (middle/bottom) 2.04 2.17 6.2% 2.13 2.13 -0.1% Decile shares Bottom 10% 3.2 2.7 -14.7% 3.1 3 -3.1% Bottom 20% 8.1 7.4 -6.3% 8 7.7 -3.7% Middle 20% 17.8 17.6 -1.2% 18.3 17.8 -2.7% Top 20% 37.4 38.2 2.1% 36.1 37.5 3.9% Top 10% 22.2 22.5 1.3% 20.9 22 5.6% Source: Harding and Greenwell, 2001. The Australian Bureau of Statistics provides details on the state income surveys. Such surveys indicate indirect estimate values on the sources of wealth as well as income attained from sources such as dividends, interest and rent. The results of the survey shows that, although, superannuation and the home equity have been distributed widely to the whole adult population, the entire assets are not distributed. In addition, there is high of 80% concentration and ownership by the most wealth population. Business assets and rental properties have acquired high concentration among the rich population. Table 6, Showing the Estimated Gini Coefficients for Wealth, in Australia, between 1986 and 1998 Row 1986 1998 1 Wealth (net) 64 64 2 Wealth (excluding superannuation) 67 70 3 Interest Bearing Deposits 88 90 4 Housing (net) 66 69 5 Business (net) 91 93 6 Superannuation 83 67 7 Shares and Other Investments 99 98 8 Rental Properties (total value) 94 94 Source: Kelly 2001 and Baekgaard, 1998. Therefore, evidences of increased spatial of income inequalities exists in Australia which implies availability of high gulf between the poor as well as rich suburbs. Health inequalities in Australia Despite the health improvements among the Australian populations in the twentieth century, a considerable health inequality has been characterized during the early time of twenty-first century. The Australian society is dominated by the morbidity health morals, health service applications and risk factors which are the various health inequalities in Australia. Such health inequality measures that present morbidity as well as morbidity-associated inequalities for instance, socio-economic disadvantages, occupation and education accessibility among the youths and working-aged individuals (Greig, Lewins & Kevin p.164). Child, youth health inequalities exists as a result of Indigenous ethnicity as well as geographical remoteness. Studies indicates that such unemployed or underpaid individuals can only manage the substandard housing which is affected by poor accessibility to the essential medical services, decent education, exposing them to the common physical as well as psychological health complications. Greig, Lewins & Kevin also focused on the political concerns that greatly contribute to the increased issues within the Australian society. In addition to the various policies, government interventions such as creation of welfare states, workplace in conjunction with the immigration regulations, the authors have as well examined issues of socio-political experiences and cultural models. They examined aspects of egalitarian myths, inequality struggling sites that are involved in unions, multiculturalism and upcoming social movements. The authors argued that “what is provided accounts for how various individuals as well as groups with distinctive access levels the socially considered resources performs in the world to meet both ends….politics is perceived as inequality cross over to the collective action to change or preserve the prevailing social resources sharing with the inclusive of power (Greig, Lewins & Kevin p.159-160)”. Conclusion Social class is continuously having significant impacts on issues concerning how individuals perceive their respective places in the society. As a result, it contributes to the development of individual identity which makes it difficult to achieve an egalitarian society in Australia. Wealth inequality in Australia has received less attention on the debate about equality due to inadequate, efficient data concerning wealth that contrasts with the existing income data. The Australian society is highly dominated by a number of health inequalities such as morbidity health morals, health service applications and risk factors. Works Cited Alastair, Greig, Frank, William & Lewins, Kevin. Inequality in Australia. Social Science - 306 pages. Cambridge University Press. 2003. Evans, Susan. Beyond gender: class, poverty and domestic violence. Australian Social Work. Vol.58, No.1, 36-43. Mar 2005. Retrieved from, McGregor, Craig & Peel. Class in Australia. Ringwood, Vic. Penguin Books. 1997. Greig A. Lewins F. W., White K. Inequality in Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Pat, O’Shane. Social Inequality in Australia. July 4, 1996. Retrieved from, < http://www.angelfire.com/in/roachworld/Aus3.html> McConnochie, Keith, Hollingsworth, David & Pettman, Jan. Race and racism in Australia. Wentworth Falls, NSW. Social Science Press, p.259. 1998. Retrieved from, < http://www.racismnoway.com.au/library/bibliography/bib184.html> Read More

Therefore, evidences continuously indicate that such class positions in Australia, are accountable for increased profound contributions in life chances as well as expectations among the Australians. He considers the issue of class as an outstanding, significant and powerful determinant of various aspects that concern social life. The class boundaries with particular focus on poverty boundary progressively constitute the exact barriers and subjectivities in individuals’ lives. Poverty level in Australia contributes to the development of underclass.

Irrespective of slight increase or reduction of unemployment period, the long term period of previous unemployment makes a significant number of people to be unemployed as well as their dependants. Such groups of people in conjunction with some long-term social protection recipients create a virtually stable underclass. As a result, the poorer are left homeless, becoming the illegal immigrants and destitute. Several scholars such as Pat O’Shane, acknowledged that Australia has long way to go in achieving an egalitarian society.

Indicating “unbridled, entirely-consuming capitalism” (Pat O’Shane, p.64) that dominates both the social as well as political thinking has been considered as the anathema and the contradicting factor to equality. Part O’Shane (1996, p.64) argued that it is very difficult to succeed in convincing the capitalists on the significance of addressing inequality as being a profitable idea. The current decisions on immigration numbers are the major characteristics of social inequalities in Australia.

According to McConnochie, Hollingsworth & Pettman (1998, p.259), argues that racism attitudes are very dominant in the Australian society especially against the Aboriginal people. Studies indicate that racism has insightful effects on the Aboriginal housing, education, employment, imprisonment, health and land rights. In conjunction to the issues of racism, are the ideas of Anglo-American culture, capitalist system and English language which have dominated the Australian societies. Such issues are largely aggravating the marginalization of a large population of people who their life expectances largely depend on other cultures as well as traditions.

Polarization of the group income among the richest and poorest is another aspect of social inequality in Australia. The Australian society is continuously moving far a way from egalitarian utopia (McConnochie, Hollingsworth & Pettman p.259). According to Evans, Susan (2005, p.39), suggests that attention is required in encompassing a detailed understanding of the existing relationships between the increased domestic violence and the entire forms resulting into marginalization within the Australian context.

Some specific attention should be given to class invisibility as well as poverty given the contemporary discourse concerning domestic violence among mainstream population; such incidences are having continuous prevalence among the population groups who are subjected to poverty, exposing the bias of normal knowledge informing the domestic violence rules and practices in Australia (Susan p.39). Therefore, the prevention attempts must accommodate ways in which class, effects resulting from poverty links to some other social identity aspects in shaping the incidences that cause domestic violence among such people victimized as well as perpetrated by violence.

Today, unemployment issue among the Indigenous Australians maintains at 20% and over. The Indigenous people in Australia are also subjected to massive over-representation in the entire state as well as territory prisons. In addition, some workers are only hired on 457 visas, they are considered in other jobs for the low wages, particularly in terrible conditions. Since they are non-migrants but guest workers, they are not entitled or possess the legal rights rendering them to super-exploitation and deportation threats incase they seek support from union organizations.

Read More