Changing Political, Economic, and Social Roles of Women in Russia - Research Paper Example

How the role of women has changed over the past 150years in Russia Student’s Name: Lecture’s Name: Course Code: Date of Submission: 1.0 Introduction Women’s roles in society have been gradually evolving over the years from a restricted private sphere to public domain where women are allowed to engage freely in various roles and career of choices. In earlier years, traditionally women were expected to engage in household level chores that directly related to motherhood and wifehood. On the other hand men had the absolute authority and were expected to be the providers of the family (Crespi, 2004). The changing gender roles have mostly been anchored on feminism theory that appreciates that the differences between men and women in terms of roles are a socially constructed phenomenon dominated by the biased patriarchal structures. As such, they fronted the response that such differences have no physical or biological backing. Therefore, through personal clamours, policies and political engagement women have engaged in processes that has seen them engage outside the traditionally ascribed roles to new domains which were restricted to men or they were to believe they could not effectively engage in such roles (Basow, 1992). Russia just as the rest of the world has experienced phenomenal change in women’s roles. These changing roles were mostly with the petrine revolution that redefined women’s roles away from traditional restrictions (Engel, 2004). Moreover, the changes were equally necessitated with the strategies fronted by Bolshevik government in 1920s (Ashwin & Lytkina, 2004). This trend has equally been necessitated by structural changes from communist to free market economy (Gratchev, Rogovsky & Rakitski, 2007). Anchored on this realisation, the aim of this paper assess how the role of women changed over the past 150 in Russia. The areas to be examined in this regard are political, economic and social domains. 2.0 Changing Women Roles: A Theoretical Discourse Friedl (1978, p.100-110) indicates that gender roles differ across cultures of the world. However, irrespective of these differences in social relationship between men and women, he observes that “women are clearly subservient to men in many societies”. Gender roles are functions of socialisation as it ascribe various duties, responsibilities and identities to the two genders. This has seen men and women have a prescribed expectation of how they are to behave and what they are to engage in. This is mostly attained through gender stereotypes for males and females in regard to myths, religion, customs and ideas (Crespi, 2004, p.1-2). Alesina, Giuliano & Nunn (2013, p.469) observes that as a result of such stereotyping, gender differences and roles exists in regard to labour force participation; participation in politics & political processes and ownership issues such as ownership of assets and firms. For instance, Women are currently occupying senior managerial positions and improved labour force participation (Kalyan, 2007; Hussey, 2003). The point of departure is closely linked to feminism concepts. Feminism theory is anchored on sexuality discourse as it appreciates that it is a core component in organising social relationships between men and women in terms of power distribution and inequality. However, it disputes that organisation as it sees it as a social construction rather than physical or biological reality (Mackinnon, 1982, p.516). Feminism theory has been at the core of informing changing gender roles by counteracting the inequalities experienced between the two genders as a result of stereotyping tendencies that are socially constructed by various socialising agents. Feminism theories aim at enhancing the position of women within the society by challenging the bias thinking that see women as subservient to men as a result of the existing patriarchal structures and agency that restricts women (Walby, 1996, p.2). According to the whole discourse of feminism and the inequalities experienced in the society along gender differences are results of how marriage and families is organised. Additionally, it is a function of how economy, politics, religion and various cultural productions are organised (Lorber, 1997, p.8). Lorber (1997, p.9); Bryson (1992) observes that works of liberal, Marxist, socialist and development feminist in 1960s and 1970s saw re-emergence for clamour of equality as informed by the 18th and 19th century liberal political philosophies that is premised on the realisation that every individual has undeniable rights. Moreover, works by Marx in criticising capitalism within the context of class consciousness have equally contributed to the growth of changing gender roles in regard to women empowerment and the reduction of inequalities in terms of women roles. Additionally, national development ideas and gender reforms have put women issues into perspective and thus, growth in their changing roles. According to Walby (1996, p.3), to attain women empowerment/ emancipation and gender transformations that is largely patriarchal, feminism calls for significant improvement in integration and participation of women in the labour market and formal politics (public sphere) as opposed to marginalisation, segregation and exclusion. This is because, under patriarchal arrangement, men have developed the tendency to develop institutions that are in sync with their needs. As such they have a greater platform for collective effective agency as compared to women. One of the paradigm shifts that have helped in realising changing role of women across the globe is the process of gender mainstreaming through approaches such as affirmative action (Walby, 2005, p.321). Gender mainstreaming as a concept was as result of Fourth World Conference of Women in 1995 that advocated for inclusion of women in issues such as poverty eradication, armed conflict, human rights, gender based violence directed to women and engagement in economic production. The hallmark of the whole process is the hope that it will contribute towards overcoming the gender disparity and inequalities in economic, social and political aspect of society. This calls for availing of gender infrastructure such as policies & affirmative action; organisational changes that entail reviewing structure that hinder work-family balance and equalising of power relations. Lastly, it calls for institutional changes within the larger society in regard to a power relationship, gender roles in a holistic manner in relevant social structure of institutions such as states, communities, markets & families (Mehra & Gupta, 2006, 1-4). 3.0 How the role of women changed over the past 150 in Russia 3.1 Past Women Roles in Russia Before discussing how women role have changed in Russia in the past 150 years it is prudent to examine their past role so as to build a contrast and timeline trend of how it has happened. Understanding the changing roles of women in Russia can be contextualised within the context of pre petrine revolution and post petrine revolution. Pre petrine revolution was demarcated with old order that is anchored on patriarchal structures informed by intertwined political & religious practices. In this regard, women were secluded, segregated and were not expected to interact with external world, but to be submissive to the male dominated authority (Engel, 2004, p.6-7). For instance, Princess Daria Golitsyna (1668-1715) only went outside the recluse only twice a year with most of them under curtained carriage. The whole relationship between men and women was premised on the socialisation given to men that they should view women with contempt, distrust and fear as enshrined in orthodox religion. The women role especially those from royalty family under muscovite government were to manage their households and engage in noble activities (Engel, 2004, p.6-9). In this regard the defining context was the traditional masculine and feminine roles. In this regard, men in Russia were expected to be providers of their families and be the unilateral head by practicing virtually unlimited powers. On the other hand, women were expected to be submissive in respect to their husbands’ position in the society and restrict themselves to household chores, motherhood, and wifehood such as bearing of children (Engel, 2004, p.13; Ickes, 1993, p.74). 3.2 Changing Women Roles in Russia Engel (2004, p.11) notes that the petrine revolution heralded a new dawn in relation to women role in Russia as a result of the desire of Peter to reorganise the patriarchal order through introduction of strengthened bureaucratic and institutionalised authority. This saw adoption of Western European lifestyle and modernity in Russia through a law enacted in 1701. For instance, under muscovite government, women were not in a position to know their marriage partners, but in 1702 decree Peter ordered that women should have six weeks prior to their marriage to know their partners and they could decide to opt out that arrangement if not interested. While to a greater extent, these might have not been significant they re-defined women roles away from pure motherhood and wifehood. Under Peter’s leadership, women behaviour was not purely restricted by Russian Orthodox principles. For instance, they were allowed to dress in revealing dresses in public spaces. The greatest achievement came in regard to women’s positions in public (p.14). On the other hand Ashwin & Lytkina (2004, 190-192) observes that the new gender order which signified the changing roles of women was as results of the initiatives by Bolshevik leaders in 1920s. In this regard, the leadership of Bolshevik institutionalised gender order as per the requirement of the communist government. The changes were necessitated by the distrust the government of the day by then had on the traditional peasant family that was seen as replication of the old regime. This saw a reduction on male prerogative and opening up of space for women to be integrated in workforce and liberated from restrictive domestic chores. Thus, women’s agenda was moved from private sphere to public sphere. The same trend was continued under Stalin era. The resultant gender order informing the new roles of women and men was premised on the expectation that women were to integrate the role of worker, mother and household manger. Men on the other hand were ascribed a restricted role of serving the state either as managers, workers and soldiers. However, the communist government did not ascribe them any domestic role. To cover this gap that was not ascribed to men, the state took upon it to play traditional masculine roles of men of being the sole provider. As such, they offered women access to paid employment (Ashwin & Lytkina, 2004, p.192-193). 3.3 The Changed Roles 3.3.1 Politically Socioeconomic and political changes in regard to women’s roles have occurred in Russia in different domains thereby overcoming the gender defined roles that are described as female spheres (Gratchev, Rogovsky & Rakitski, 2007, p.809). The role of women in politics and public administration gained prominence in post-pestrine era in 1725 with Catherine 1 the second wife of peter coming into throne (Engel, 2004, p.15). She ensured education of mothers with the belief that this education would be translated to women folk (p.16). The same was experienced under Bolshevik revolution that incorporated women into governance framework allowing them to occupy prime positions in the government (Bonnell, 1991, p.270). Since formation of the Soviet Union in 1917 to present Russia women have participated in administration of public affairs and representation of various constituencies. For instance, from 1915-1918, Alexandra Fyodorovna was de-facto in charge of the government business. Subsequently, women have risen to position of deputy minister, deputy chief of staff, chairperson of state corporations, and advisor of the president, minister and member of consultative council (Women Leaders, 2011). While the country is ranked lowly in terms of the number of women representatives in National Assembly globally, the country has accepted women have equally leaders who can represent the interest of public and a given constituency. For instance, in the 450 State Duma there are 61 women. Additionally, women are now occupying strategic positions in government appointment. For instance, Elvira Nabiullina a former minister for economic development was appointed head of central bank of Russia. Others, such as Valentina Tereshkova arose to become the governor of the second largest city in Russia, St Petersburg (Kiryukhina, 2013). The involvement of women in top political decision making organs, representation and public administration points towards the changing role of women. 3.3.2 Economically In pre-pestrine regime the traditional role of women was to remain at home and nurture family. From 1920, the Bolshevik government allowed women to engage in employment (Ashwin & Lytkina, 2004, p.192-193). Smirnova (2013, p.119) observes that women representation in various economic spheres of Russia has grown tremendously as result of modernisation, urbanisation and economic pressures. This has seen women being represented in economic activities as decision makers/ managers, employers/ entrepreneurs or as employees. This point to the overcoming of stereotype gender roles as women step outside the limited traditional roles top domains considered to belong to men such top corporate CEOs. The women new roles in regard to such positions are as a result of the affirmative action so as to attain gender equity and personal endeavours through education and self improvement. For instance, in terms of labour force participation, women participation rose from 26.6% in 1914 to 43.2% in 1917. The same trend was experienced in metal work industry in St Petersburg where representation of women in the workforce rose to 20% in 1916. Additionally, women teachers were allowed to tutor in secondary schools thereby reducing the restrictions they had experienced earlier (Engel, 2004, p.131). Such trends point to the changed role of women in economic growth and development of a nation which was mainly a preserve of men. According to World Bank (2014) women representation in Russia’s workforce since 2009 to present has stood at 57% with the lowest record being 56% in 2010. Indeed, Paranyushkin (2009) observes that women representation in Russia’s workforce constitute 46.6%. However, there are domains within the workforce that women are over represented thus pointing how women roles have changed. For instance, in public health service, women account for 85%. This is followed by education at 81%, credit finance at 78%, information & accounting services at 75% and the lowest being construction industry at 22%. The positive aspect is that a 22% representation in construction industry is significant since this is a section that is seen as masculine as opposed to feminine characteristics. The same is applicable to finance & accounting industry that is seen as a tough for men as opposed to female sphere/ profession. The other critical area of dominance of women is in regard to feminisation of professions such as journalism where women dominate the profession (Smirnova, 2013, p.121). 3.3.3 Socially Alesina, Giuliano & Nunn (2013, p.469) notes that under generic approach of stereotypical thinking, the natural place of women was believed to be inside home and thus, women roles were limited to functions that revolved around domestic chores. On the other hand, men’s natural place was seen to be outside the home. As such, men engaged public and political activities. However, such beliefs have constantly been challenged with the clamour starting from 1960s-1970s. These clamours have heralded changing roles of women (Scott, 2008, p.156). According Basow (1992) the most informing factor was the realisation that the difference is not as result of physical or psychological evidence, but as result of stereotyping that gives birth to differences between the two sexes. The changing social structure has been necessitated by growth of urbanisation, modernism mass media. The traditional social role of women of wifehood and motherhood has been deconstructed and presently women are free to engage in any form of economic and political avenues. For instance, in Russia, women engage in social activities that were deemed masculine such as sports which include athletics, football, weight lifting and martial arts. 4.0 Conclusion The aim of the paper was to examine how the roles of women have changed over the past 150 years in Russia. The paper realised that changing of women’s roles is mostly informed by feminism theory and necessitated by dynamic aspects such as modernisation, urbanism, diffusion of ideas and economic pressures. The changing roles of women in Russia are high demarcated by the political development as informed by pre-pestrine era and post pestrine era. In pre era, women were restricted to their gender stereotyped traditional roles while in the post era, the traditional roles were deconstructed and clamour for equity ushered. This was strengthened in 1920s by the coming of Bolshevik government that re-oriented the whole social, economic and political structures that defines gender roles. The paper established that women roles have significantly politically as they are now engaged in elective post and public administration positions. Secondly, the paper established that their economic role has changed as now they are actively engaged in mainstream economy and production system as they are equally allowed in what was deemed as male domains/ professions. Lastly, their social roles have extended beyond motherhood and wifehood to equal partners in the social relationship with men. References Alesina, A., Giuliano, P., & Nunn, N. (2013). On the origins of gender roles: Women and the plough. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 128(2), 469-530. Ashwin, S., & Lytkina, T. (2004). Men in Crisis in Russia The Role of Domestic Marginalization. Gender & Society, 18(2), 189-206. Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender: Stereotypes and roles. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. Bonnell, E. V. (1991). The representation of women in early Soviet political art. Russian Review, 50(3), 267-288. Bryson, V. (1992). Feminist political theory (pp. 225-230). London: Macmillan. Crespi, I. (2004). Socialization and gender roles within the family: A study on adolescents and their parents in Great Britain. MCFA Annals, 3. Engel, B. A. (2004). Women in Russia, 1700-2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Friedl, E. (1978). Society and sex roles. Human Nature, 1(4), 68-75. Gratchev, M. V., Rogovsky, N. G., & Rakitski, B. V. (2007). Leadership and culture in Russia: The case of transitional economy. Culture and leadership across the world: the GLOBE book of in-depth studies of, 25, 803-831. Hussey, J. (2003). Royal Commission on Renewing and Strengthening Our Place in Canada. Ickes, W. (1993). Traditional gender roles: do they make, and then break, our relationships? Journal of Social Issues, 49(3), 71-85. Kalyan, S. (2007). The Changing Role of Women in the Workplace. Editorial Board, 14. Kiryukhina, Y. (26 September, 2013). Will a woman reach the top in Russian politics? Retrieved on 17 April, 2014 from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sponsored/rbth/politics/10337982/russia-politics- women.html. Lorber, J. (1997). The variety of feminisms and their contributions to gender equality. Bis. MaKinnon, A. C. (1982). Feminism, Marxism, Method, and the State: An Agenda for Theory. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 7(3), 515-544. Mehra, R., & Gupta, G. R. (2006). Gender mainstreaming: making it happen. International Center for Research on Women (ICRW). Paranyushkin, D. (18 August, 2009). Interesting facts about Russian women and women rights in Russia. Retrieved on 17 April 2014 from: http://www.waytorussia.net/WhatIsRussia/Women/Facts.html. Scott, J. (2008). 6. Changing gender role attitudes1. Women and employment: Changing lives and new challenges, 156. Smirnova, O. V. (2013). Women's advancement in journalism: psychological characteristics. Psychology in Russia. State of the Art, 6(1), 119-127. Walby, S. (1996). Key Concepts in Feminist Theory. Aalborg University. Walby, S. (2005). Gender mainstreaming: Productive tensions in theory and practice. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 12(3), 321-343. White, A. (2005). Gender roles in contemporary Russia: Attitudes and expectations among women students. Europe-Asia Studies, 57(3), 429-455. Women Leaders (1 June, 2011). Worldwide guide to women in leadership: Federal Republic of Russia. Retrieved on 17 April, 2014 from: http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/Russia.htm. World Bank (2014). Labour force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate). Retrieved on 17 April, 2014 from: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS. Read More

The point of departure is closely linked to feminism concepts. Feminism theory is anchored on sexuality discourse as it appreciates that it is a core component in organising social relationships between men and women in terms of power distribution and inequality. However, it disputes that organisation as it sees it as a social construction rather than physical or biological reality (Mackinnon, 1982, p.516). Feminism theory has been at the core of informing changing gender roles by counteracting the inequalities experienced between the two genders as a result of stereotyping tendencies that are socially constructed by various socialising agents.

Feminism theories aim at enhancing the position of women within the society by challenging the bias thinking that see women as subservient to men as a result of the existing patriarchal structures and agency that restricts women (Walby, 1996, p.2). According to the whole discourse of feminism and the inequalities experienced in the society along gender differences are results of how marriage and families is organised. Additionally, it is a function of how economy, politics, religion and various cultural productions are organised (Lorber, 1997, p.8). Lorber (1997, p.9); Bryson (1992) observes that works of liberal, Marxist, socialist and development feminist in 1960s and 1970s saw re-emergence for clamour of equality as informed by the 18th and 19th century liberal political philosophies that is premised on the realisation that every individual has undeniable rights.

Moreover, works by Marx in criticising capitalism within the context of class consciousness have equally contributed to the growth of changing gender roles in regard to women empowerment and the reduction of inequalities in terms of women roles. Additionally, national development ideas and gender reforms have put women issues into perspective and thus, growth in their changing roles. According to Walby (1996, p.3), to attain women empowerment/ emancipation and gender transformations that is largely patriarchal, feminism calls for significant improvement in integration and participation of women in the labour market and formal politics (public sphere) as opposed to marginalisation, segregation and exclusion.

This is because, under patriarchal arrangement, men have developed the tendency to develop institutions that are in sync with their needs. As such they have a greater platform for collective effective agency as compared to women. One of the paradigm shifts that have helped in realising changing role of women across the globe is the process of gender mainstreaming through approaches such as affirmative action (Walby, 2005, p.321). Gender mainstreaming as a concept was as result of Fourth World Conference of Women in 1995 that advocated for inclusion of women in issues such as poverty eradication, armed conflict, human rights, gender based violence directed to women and engagement in economic production.

The hallmark of the whole process is the hope that it will contribute towards overcoming the gender disparity and inequalities in economic, social and political aspect of society. This calls for availing of gender infrastructure such as policies & affirmative action; organisational changes that entail reviewing structure that hinder work-family balance and equalising of power relations. Lastly, it calls for institutional changes within the larger society in regard to a power relationship, gender roles in a holistic manner in relevant social structure of institutions such as states, communities, markets & families (Mehra & Gupta, 2006, 1-4). 3.0 How the role of women changed over the past 150 in Russia 3.

1 Past Women Roles in Russia Before discussing how women role have changed in Russia in the past 150 years it is prudent to examine their past role so as to build a contrast and timeline trend of how it has happened. Understanding the changing roles of women in Russia can be contextualised within the context of pre petrine revolution and post petrine revolution.

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