Disaster Management Plans, Legislation and Reconstruction Strategies - Term Paper Example

Accidents and Catastrophes Introduction The paper intends to explain the nature of accidents and catastrophes, describing various parameters based on which they are classified. Additionally, the study discusses modern day threats such as terrorism and their impact on urban areas like London or Preston. The research paper would further analyse a range of different accidents and catastrophes commenting on their consequences, the lessons learned from them and any implications for legistlation resulting from them. Finally, the paper discusses various UK disaster management plans, legislation and reconstruction strategies. Accidents and catastrophes are unfortunate events that cause human and material loss. Urban areas are constantly under threat because of the occurrence of various accidents and catastrophes. This paper would attempt to define the various types of hazards arising out of factors such as socio-political, industrial or environmental. Furthermore, the effect of various catastrophes would also be studied by analysing some disasters such as London bomb blasts 7/7, King Cross Fire, and Hillsborough disaster to understand the impact of such events, and their outcome in terms of legislation changes. Accidents and Catastrophes: Nature and Classification WordNet describes accident as an unfortunate mishap; especially one causing damage or injury, and catastrophe as a disaster or tragic event resulting in great loss and misfortune. Accidents are events that are specific, identifiable, unintentional, unusual, and that occur at a particular time and place, without any deliberate cause but produces marked effects. It is generally believed that accidents may have been prevented or avoided in case the circumstances leading up to the accident had been recognised. Accidents can be classified into various categories such as air or aviation accidents, bike accidents, accidents involving explosives, car or automotive accidents, rail accidents, nuclear accidents, ship accidents, workplace accidents, occupational accidents, and home accidents. Catastrophe is considered as a tragedy of a natural or human-made hazard that affects the society or environment negatively. In modern terms, catastrophe is viewed as the result of inappropriately managed risks, which are the product of vulnerability and hazards. Experts often see disasters as human-made, as they believe if humans act appropriately before any hazard strikes, catastrophes can be prevented. Most catastrophes are therefore the result of the failure to introduce proper disaster management measures (Quarantelli 1998). Catastrophes are often divided into natural or human-made. Natural catastrophes result from natural disasters that affect human lives. Some of the common natural disasters include volcanic eruption, earthquake, tsunamis, and floods. However, experts believe that the result of such natural disasters can be reduced with the implementation of appropriate emergency management system (Wisner 2004). Man-made disasters are caused by human action, error, or negligence. Such disasters are either caused by technological or social failure. For instance, transport disasters, environmental disasters and engineering failures are part of technological fault, whereas, terrorist attacks, criminal acts, riots, and war occur due to sociological failure (Wisner 2004). Accidents and Catastrophes: Urban Threats Urban areas are constantly under threats of natural catastrophes, man-made disasters and massive accidents, causing heavy human casualties as well as financial losses. There are various types of hazards that produce urban catastrophes, such as socio-political catastrophe, industrial catastrophe and environmental disaster. Some of the common urban disasters arising out of socio-political reasons include wars, political terrorism, crime, and cyber-terrorism. Industrial catastrophe arises due to natural or human error in electrical, chemical, nuclear or other such facilities. Whereas, environmental disaster is the result of natural hazards such as floods, tornadoes, cyclones, and earthquakes (Skertchly 2001). Experts believe that these threats would have massive impact on urban areas, especially densely populated cities such as London. Environmental hazards such as climate change, global warming, industrial pollution, can seriously threaten the city’s quality of life. Analysts opine that London is in danger of flooding, drought and heat waves, with around 1.25 million people being at risk of flooding, along with almost half a million properties, 75 Underground, 441 schools, and 10 hospitals (Beament 2008). However, the major threat the city is facing in this contemporary world is that of organised crime and terrorism. Due to the vast improvement in communication, accessibility of air transport and advancement in Internet technology, the modern society, is facing the growing threat of organised crime and international terrorism that is proliferating rapidly all over the world, and especially in major cities like London. Furthermore, cities such as London have complex structures which become extremely vulnerable in the events of disasters. In the modern day society, as people congregates in larger cities like London and New York, their vulnerability to terror attacks has also increased manifold. Furthermore, the intensity of the attacks has also increased due to the availability of explosives and non-conventional weapons, which can cause large-scale damage equivalent to destructions caused during warfare. This has made innocent urban lives vulnerable to terror attacks, with many living in perpetual fear of loosing their or their loved ones lives (Janzon 2008). Experts believe that Britain, especially London face a greater risk of terrorist attack due to the recent development in terrorist attack on the city. A government document titled, “International Terrorism in the UK” reveals that Britain is facing imminent threat from home-grown al-Qaeda – a terror organisation – agents. MI5, the British Secret Service, believes that there are more than 1,600 suspicious people actively engaged in planning terrorist attacks. It is estimated that there are around 200 known networks that are involved in at least 30 terrorist plots. It is also believed that more than 2,000 British citizens might be involved in the plots. The agency also believes that some of the most vulnerable spots for the terror attacks include the transport system and economic targets such as the City of London and Canary Wharf. Many political experts opine that although the government is warmed of the looming danger from Islamist terrorist organisations, the task of countering them would be a daunting one and therefore, it would become extremely difficult to stop future attacks in Britain, especially in the cities. Therefore, experts further illustrate that the government need to make updated counter-terrorist strategy to foresee and mitigate large-scale disasters (Rayment 2007). In another recent secret intelligence report, the same fact has been reiterated. Experts believe that there are around thousands of militants in Britain, especially concentrating in areas such as London, Birmingham and Luton. The report further states that these extremists are majorly South Asian nationals, especially from Pakistan, with few from north and east Africa, Iraq and the Middle East. Most of these extremists are male in the age bracket of 18-30 years (Terrorism threat 2008). The impact of terrorism on London is humongous, not just in terms of loss of human lives and property, but also causing psychological distress in the survivors. The impact has become measurable post the July 7, 2005 bombing in London. People have become more suspicious in their attitude. According to a study of around 300 young people from the East Midlands, it was found that terrorism has made young people more cautious about making friends from different backgrounds and communities. Further, the government has also become stringent in their views towards Islamist clerics and religious leaders, who are believed to be the major propagator of terrorist ideas. Such terror attacks also impact the economy of the country, hitting the tourism and the travel industry the worst. Furthermore, to counter terrorism, the government is also required to invest millions of pounds to formulate counter-terrorism contingency plans, recruit specialised forces, and update their technology. However, the most difficult task for the government is to restore peace and trust among its people, post a terrorist attack (Terrorism threat 2008). Accidents and Catastrophes: Their Consequences & Implications In order to study the consequences and implications of various accidents and catastrophes that happen in large cities, we would analyse a few disaster that took place in UK over the last few years. London bomb blasts – 7/7 The greatest disaster that struck Britain in the recent past is the series of bomb blasts that hit London's public transport system on 7 July 2005, during the morning rush hour. This terror attack is considered to be the largest and deadliest terrorist attack on London's transit system, which left 52 commuters dead, 700 injured, and caused disruption of the city's transport system as well as the country's mobile telecommunications infrastructure. Some of the immediate effect of the attack was the unprecedented pressure on the mobile network. Vodafone said to have reported that its mobile phone network reached the maximum capacity following the attack and it had to initiate emergency procedures to prioritise emergency calls. The attack left most of London's public transport system crippled due to the complete closure of the underground. Economically, the attacks had limited immediate reactions with the pound falling 0.89 cents to a 19-month low against the U.S. dollar and the FTSE 100 Index falling by about 200 points within two hours of the first attack. However, the London Stock Exchange triggered special measures to restrict panic selling and ensured market stability. Britain saw many changes in its legislation following these terrorist attacks. The parliament introduced a legislation that made it a criminal offence to receive training in terrorist techniques, to participate in acts such as buying raw materials for a bomb, and to indirectly incite terrorist acts. The government now also require radical clerics from abroad seeking entry visas to be screened for their ideology. Further, these clerics need to be conversant in English. The government has also established special intelligence Muslim contact units in areas with considerable number of Muslim population. It has also instructed university administrators to be more vigilant with Islamist groups recruiting on campuses (Radu 2005). King Cross Fire A flash fire burnt down a wooden escalator at the King's Cross station on 18 November 1987, killing 31 people including a fire-fighter. The fire was evidently started by a discarded match that ignited the grease and rubbish beneath the escalator in a machine room. Although, smoking was banned on the London Underground, investigation reveals, the regulations were not strictly adhered to. Post the disaster, the authorities were prompted to totally ban smoking in all London Underground stations, including the escalators. Additionally, all of the Underground's wooden escalators were replaced with ones made from steel. A public inquiry into the event was conducted, which prompted the introduction of the Fire Precautions Regulations 1989, initiated under section 12 of the 1971 Fire Precautions Act. The regulation not only led to the replacement of all the Underground’s wooden escalators but also prompted various other changes. For instance, the regulation made it mandatory to install automatic sprinklers and heat detectors in escalators, providing mandatory fire safety training for fire station staff twice a year, and improving the emergency services system in the Undergrounds. Further, the regulation also led to formulating stringent restrictions on the kinds of paint to be used on the Underground (Kings cross fire 2005). Hillsborough Disaster The Hillsborough disaster is remembered as the most deadly stadium-related disaster in Britain. The incident happened on 15 April 1989, at a football stadium in Sheffield, England called Hillsborough, which resulted in the deaths of 96 people and left 400 injured. The incident occurred when crowd surged forward and caused the spectators at the front of the terraces to be crushed against the fences that were installed to stop the fans invading the pitch. Although, there were gates in these fences, but there were delays in opening these due to those failures in the communications system. Following the disaster, a committed headed by Lord Justice Taylor was appointed to conduct an inquiry into the catastrophe. Lord Taylor made general recommendations on football ground safety which resulted in removing fences in front of fans and converting many of the top stadiums to all-seated. Major stadiums in Britain replaced standing-room areas with seats, which involved the removal of terraces at those grounds. The government also introduced a legislation to improve security at soccer matches by introducing provision that would require fans to carry identity cards (Rule 1989). UK disaster management plans Following the fuel protests, and severe flooding in the year 2000, together with the 2001 outbreak of foot-and-mouth crisis, promoted the United Kingdom to adjust its focus on disaster and emergency management policies. The chief impact of these disasters was the formation of the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 (CCA), which regulated the responsibilities of all responders during an emergency situation. The Civil Contingencies Secretariat through Regional Resilience Forums and local authorities manage the CCA. The act had been created to give the British government wide-ranging powers in case of an emergency. The act further serves as a guide for the formation of a Local Resilience Forum to undertake risk assessments, and maintain them in a Community Risk Register, which needs to be published at a regular interval. This register provides the initial step towards emergency planning and ensures that the plans are in proportion to the risk. The Act has been divided into three parts, with the first part defining the obligations of certain organisations to prepare various types of emergencies, the second part providing additional powers for the government to use in case of emergencies and the third part giving supplementary legislation to support the first two parts. In Britain most of the disaster management training is conducted at the local level by the organisations involved in handling crisis situations. Professional courses can also be undertaken at the Emergency Planning College. Furthermore, many colleges in the country also offer diplomas and undergraduate qualifications - the first such course being offered by Coventry University in 1994. A charity organisation, Institute of Emergency Management was established in 1996 with the aim to provide consulting services for the media, government and commercial sectors (Brown 2008). On 20 May 2007, the country’s largest ever emergency exercise was carried out near Belfast, Northern Ireland, which involved a plane crash landing at Belfast International Airport. The entire exercise involved staff from five hospitals and three airports with almost 150 international observers assessing its effectiveness. However, together with managing disaster, the UK government also passed a number of terrorism acts, to counter terrorist attacks, which has become a major threat to the national security in the recent past. For instance, the Parliament introduced a new Terrorism Act on 30 March 2006 which creates new offences related to terrorism, as well as amends existing ones. This act was drafted after 7 July 2005 London bombings. The act is divided into three parts, the part one consists of a series of new criminal offences to assist the police in tackling terrorism; Part 2 deals with miscellaneous provisions giving more power to the Home Secretary to proscribe terrorist groups; while the final part of the act provides for creating a review of the operation of the Terrorism Act 2000, apart from routine matters such as commencement of the act (New terror law 2006). Conclusion Although, majority of the accidents and catastrophes are unforeseen, the government still can prepare contingency plans to counter such events or reduce the impact of the tragedy. Adherence to stringent safety measures and vigilant security services can help in countering accidents and modern day threats such as terrorism. The paper revealed that the UK government has mostly formulated various policies after the occurrence of tragedies. Therefore, the government needs to be proactive in their approach and prepare contingency plans and regulations even before a tragic incidence. The UK government has done some commendable job with the formation of the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 (CCA), which regulated the responsibilities of all responders during an emergency situation. This act gives the British government wide-ranging powers in case of an emergency and serves as a guide for the formation of a Local Resilience Forum to undertake risk assessments, and maintain them in a Community Risk Register, which needs to be published at a regular interval. Therefore, it could be concluded that a disaster management plan is the backbone of any modern society, and the United Kingdom has adequately prepared itself with the formulation of various acts and regulations such as the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 and the Terrorism Acts. Sources ‘Kings cross fire’, London Fire Journal, 13 July 2005, viewed 16 November 2008 . ‘New terror law comes into force,’ BBC News, 13 April 2006, viewed 16 November 2008 . ‘Terrorism threat in UK 'growing', BBC, 9 November 2008, viewed 16 November 2008 . Beament, Emily, Emily Ashton 2008, ‘Johnson warns of climate threat to London,’ The Independent, 29 August 2008, viewed 16 November 2008 . Brown, David 2008, ‘Yes, rescue teams care, but they must learn to share, too’, Times Online, 14 November 2008, viewed 16 November 2008 . Janzon, Bo, Rickard Forsén 2008, ‘Threats from terrorist and criminal activity and risk of dangerous accidents—Resistance And vulnerability of the urban Environment and ways of mitigation’, Resilience of Cities to Terrorist and other Threats. Quarantelli, E.L. 1998, ‘Where We Have Been and Where We Might Go.’ In: Quarantelli E.L. (ed). What Is A Disaster? London: Routledge. pp.146-159 Radu, Michael 2005, ‘London 7/7 and its impact,’ American Diplomacy, July 30, 2005, viewed 16 November 2008 . Rayment, Sean 2007, ‘Secret report: Terror threat worst since 9/11’, Telegraph, 25 February 2007, viewed 16 November 2008 . Rule, Sheila 1989, ‘Stadium Changes Hinted in Britain After Disaster,’ The New York Times, 18 April 1989, viewed 16 November 2008 . Skertchly, Allan, Kristen Skertchly 2001,’ Catastrophe management: coping with totally unexpected extreme disasters’, Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Autumn 2001, pp. 24. Wisner, B., P. Blaikie, T. Cannon, and I. Davis 2004, ‘At Risk - Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters.’ WordNet Princeton University, viewed 16 November 2008, . WordNet Princeton University, viewed 16 November 2008, . Read More

Experts believe that these threats would have massive impact on urban areas, especially densely populated cities such as London. Environmental hazards such as climate change, global warming, industrial pollution, can seriously threaten the city’s quality of life. Analysts opine that London is in danger of flooding, drought and heat waves, with around 1.25 million people being at risk of flooding, along with almost half a million properties, 75 Underground, 441 schools, and 10 hospitals (Beament 2008).

However, the major threat the city is facing in this contemporary world is that of organised crime and terrorism. Due to the vast improvement in communication, accessibility of air transport and advancement in Internet technology, the modern society, is facing the growing threat of organised crime and international terrorism that is proliferating rapidly all over the world, and especially in major cities like London. Furthermore, cities such as London have complex structures which become extremely vulnerable in the events of disasters.

In the modern day society, as people congregates in larger cities like London and New York, their vulnerability to terror attacks has also increased manifold. Furthermore, the intensity of the attacks has also increased due to the availability of explosives and non-conventional weapons, which can cause large-scale damage equivalent to destructions caused during warfare. This has made innocent urban lives vulnerable to terror attacks, with many living in perpetual fear of loosing their or their loved ones lives (Janzon 2008).

Experts believe that Britain, especially London face a greater risk of terrorist attack due to the recent development in terrorist attack on the city. A government document titled, “International Terrorism in the UK” reveals that Britain is facing imminent threat from home-grown al-Qaeda – a terror organisation – agents. MI5, the British Secret Service, believes that there are more than 1,600 suspicious people actively engaged in planning terrorist attacks. It is estimated that there are around 200 known networks that are involved in at least 30 terrorist plots.

It is also believed that more than 2,000 British citizens might be involved in the plots. The agency also believes that some of the most vulnerable spots for the terror attacks include the transport system and economic targets such as the City of London and Canary Wharf. Many political experts opine that although the government is warmed of the looming danger from Islamist terrorist organisations, the task of countering them would be a daunting one and therefore, it would become extremely difficult to stop future attacks in Britain, especially in the cities.

Therefore, experts further illustrate that the government need to make updated counter-terrorist strategy to foresee and mitigate large-scale disasters (Rayment 2007). In another recent secret intelligence report, the same fact has been reiterated. Experts believe that there are around thousands of militants in Britain, especially concentrating in areas such as London, Birmingham and Luton. The report further states that these extremists are majorly South Asian nationals, especially from Pakistan, with few from north and east Africa, Iraq and the Middle East.

Most of these extremists are male in the age bracket of 18-30 years (Terrorism threat 2008). The impact of terrorism on London is humongous, not just in terms of loss of human lives and property, but also causing psychological distress in the survivors. The impact has become measurable post the July 7, 2005 bombing in London. People have become more suspicious in their attitude. According to a study of around 300 young people from the East Midlands, it was found that terrorism has made young people more cautious about making friends from different backgrounds and communities.

Further, the government has also become stringent in their views towards Islamist clerics and religious leaders, who are believed to be the major propagator of terrorist ideas.

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