Comparing Health Care in the United States, Canada, and Mexico - Coursework Example

Comparing Healthcare of the of the No Contents Contents 2 United s 3 Brief History 3 Political EconomicSystem 3 Health Status 4 Biomedical Ethical Issue 8 Analysis 8 Canada 9 Brief History 9 Political Economic System 9 Health Status 10 Biomedical Ethical Issue 15 Analysis 15 Mexico 16 Brief History 16 Political Economic System 16 Health Status 17 Biomedical Ethical Issue 20 Analysis 20 Critical Review 21 References 26 United States Brief History After the Treaty of Paris in 1783, United States was founded in 1776. The nation was previously a part of Britain’s American colonies. The Civil War that took place from 1861 to 1865 had strongly affected growth, stability and economic prosperity of the nation. In addition to that in 1930, recession ensuing from Great Depression also negatively influenced economic status of the country (CIA, 2014). The national income, employments and living standards of individuals in U.S. had significantly declined due to severe atrocities generated by recessionary trails during that period of time. Political Economic System United States’ political authority strictly follows the norms of democracy. The government is a constitution based federal republican system. The capital of the country is Washington DC. The country is divided into 50 states and 1 district. The nation achieved its independence on 4th July 1776 (CIA, 2014). The political system follows English common law at the Federal stage. The state level legal system is based upon the Napoleonic civil code. The present political governing head of the nation is Barack H. Obama. The political parties in U.S. are Democratic Party, Green Party, Libertarian Party and Republican Party (CIA, 2014). The economy of U.S. is considered to be the most technologically superior economic system in the world. The country has a free market economy and hence, its private sectors actively participate in decision making process of the nation. So, commercial and social enterprises of the country are equally tackled by public and private authorities. The economy of the country is highly productive with the essence of its unique technological status. In 2011, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of the country was $ 51400; and in 2013, it was $ 52800 (CIA, 2014). This shows that overall purchasing powers of individuals in the country are increasing. The nation is considered to be a developed one and its annual GDP growth rate is approximately 1.5%. The service sector of the country is the primary sector that contributes 79.4% of its total GDP. As recorded in 2013, labor force of the nation was 155.4 million. Approximately 7.3% of individuals are unemployed in the country. The public sector debt of the nation was 7 1.8% in 2013 and its inflation rate was 1.5% (CIA, 2014). Economic prosperity of the country had declined during the global financial crisis; but through the Dodd Frank Act, U.S. is trying to revive its financial system. About 15.1% individuals in the country are categorized to be living below the poverty thresholds (CIA, 2014). Health Status Life Expectancy Life expectancy indicates the expected life span of an individual since birth. The life expectancy index is an important dimension of human development index in a nation. Its value is positively related to health status conditions of a nation. Figure 1: Life Expectancy (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above graph shows that life expectancy of U.S. is increasing overtime. This proves that its health status has significantly improved from 2004 to 2012. Improving health status of the country points out efficient healthcare services provided by its public and private healthcare delivery systems. Superior technological advancements made within this sector have helped to augment competency of healthcare delivery institutions (Cameron, 2007). Infant Mortality Infant mortality rate shows the total number of children dying in every 1000 live births. According to the views of United Nations Millennium Development Goals, children and women health status resembles future health and welfare aspects of a country. So, a lower infant mortality is always the desirable outcome of a health market. Figure 2: Infant Mortality (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above graph shows that with time, level of infant mortality in U.S. has significantly fallen. This proves that child health status is good in the nation. Superior health status of children signifies a healthy future population for U.S. Access Figure 3: Healthcare Access (Source: World Bank, 2014) Health is a type of social or public good, which is why its services should be available to all individuals in a society. So, it is the duty of public sector authorities of a nation to secure the fact that need for healthcare services of all individuals are met. However, healthcare markets of most nations have presently become highly commercialized. Due to such factors, health has become a normal good. Private participation in the U.S. healthcare market is encouraged for providing health services to those individuals who can afford expensive medical services. Public authorities provide health services to those who cannot afford such expenses. The above graph shows that private expenditure in U.S. healthcare sector is more than its public expenditure. This shows that healthcare market of the country is mostly privatized. The access to healthcare service in U.S. is, thus, moderately fair. This can be determined by observing the growing public and private health expenditure thresholds in the country. Since access to healthcare services is good in U.S., health conditions in terms of life expectancy are also found to improve. Healthcare Workforce The workforce policies in U.S. have significantly changed with time. The public as well as private healthcare delivery systems of the country try to acquire highly skilled professionals as their potential workforce. Figure 4: Health Market Employment Opportunities (Source: Keckley & Coughlin, 2012) Figure 5: Detailed Health Market Workforce (Source: Keckley & Coughlin, 2012) The above figures show that employment opportunities in the health market of U.S. is increasing over time. However, it should be noted that healthcare market workforce of U.S. is highly diversified in nature. Since demand for healthcare service is rapidly increasing in the nation, it is expected that policy makers in this sector would modify the traditional policies and plan workforce requirements in a proactive approach; this will ensure long-term access to healthcare services for every individual. Technology In 2009, healthcare sector of U.S. had invented the electronic health record system (EHR). Almost 80% hospitals in the country are eligible to receive subsidies from the government for incorporating EHR system within their operations (Jayanthi, 2014). The mobile heath device has also been introduced. Through this machine, both physicians and patients can easily scrutinize their ongoing health indicators. With growing use of smartphones and tablets, significance of this device is rising. The country has developed a special telemedicine service whereby medical services are provided in rural areas. The new Portal technology also helps individuals to regularly check their health conditions (Jayanthi, 2014). Apart from these, other technological innovations made in U.S. health market like, self-service kiosks, remote monitors, sensors and wearable medical devices and Pharmacogenomics, denotes that U.S. healthcare delivery sector is highly advanced, in terms of technological innovation (Jayanthi, 2014). Biomedical Ethical Issue Organ donation has become an important aspect of U.S. healthcare market. Sick patients get a chance to live longer with the help of donated organs like, kidney and heart. It is true that an organ donation activity in the medical world has substantially helped to improve lives of millions of individuals. Nevertheless, it is also true that ethical aspects are often overlooked in the course of such actions (NUS, 1993). The recent reports claim that U.S. health sector is facing certain problems regarding organ and tissue transplantation. The ever increasing waiting list of transplant patients in U.S. denotes the problem of scarcity of donated organs. The demand for transplants in the country has augmented in recent years due to rise in number of patients eligible for transplants (Caplan, 1995). The age limits imposed for transplantations have broadened with time. Yet, average number of individuals willing to donate organs in U.S. has not increased equally so as to cater the growing demand. In order to resolve this ethical issue, U.S. government is introducing laws at its state level through which hospitals are instructed to frame policies whereby they can approach families of potential donors. Some estimates show that almost 83% of physicians in these hospitals have been able to successfully approach potential organ donors. This has helped to lower scarcity of organs required in transplantations in U.S. It can be claimed that organ donation related ethical biomedical issues faced in developed nations like, U.S. and Canada, are fairly similar. Such issues are essential because it not possible to strategically control the demand and supply of such factors in the market (NUS, 1993). Analysis From the above context, it would be correct to state that U.S. is a highly developed country, in terms of economy and health. The growing life expectancy and falling infant mortality rates in the country denotes its superior healthcare services. It is also noted that though health is a type of social good, yet its service providing sector is highly privatized in U.S. This is because majority of people in the country possess adequate purchasing power in order to enjoy required healthcare services. The expanding and growing health delivery system in the country houses skilled workforce and technological knowhow. However, there are a few biomedical issues faced by the company regarding organ procurement and donation. It is expected that with efficient political and economic framework and superior planning policies, such issues can be resolved in the long run (Daemmrich, 2011). Canada Brief History The country has been known all over the world for its rich natural resources and large land area. During the 16th and 17th century, the country was a colony of the Europeans; of which, the French had reigned for a longer time span (CIA, 2014). The self-governance rule became prevalent in the country only through enactment of British North American Act. Canada had become a self-ruling dominion in 1867 with assistance of ties maintained with the British Crown (CIA, 2014). Political Economic System The country’s political authority is a parliamentary democracy. The political sector of the nation abides by norms of federation as well as constitutional monarchy. The capital of the country is Ottawa. Canada is politically divided in 10 provinces and 3 territories (CIA, 2014). The public authorities govern the country under the norms of common law system. Even so, in Quebec, the legal system follows civil law introduced by French Civil Code. Presently, the political body of Canada is headed by Stephen Joseph Harper, the Prime Minister. Since the nation, similar to U.S., follows democratic norms, the ruling government is determined through election. The major political parties of the country are Bloc Quebecois, Conservative Party of Canada Green Party, Liberal Party and New Democratic Party or NDP (CIA, 2014). The economic status of the country is as prosperous as U.S. The country’s economy follows free market mixed economic principles; under this regime, public as well as private authorities in the nation actively participate in economic affairs. The country’s industrial sector is largely developed and living standards of the natives are also high. After the victory of World War II, the country’s mining, manufacturing and service sectors had significantly improved; this helped to urbanize and industrialize its rural economy. The financial sector of the country is very conservative and perhaps, this is why it was least affected during the global financial crisis. The crude oil sector of the country is also improving at present. The per capita income level of Canada has increased from $42700 in 2011 to $43100 in 2013 (CIA, 2014). Contribution of service sector to the nation’s GDP is 69.9%. Its potential labor force is 19.08 million and the rate of unemployment is only 7.1%. Only 9.4% of individuals in the country live below poverty line (CIA, 2014). Health Status Life Expectancy Figure 6: Life Expectancy (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above graph shows that from 2002 to 2012, life expectancy of Canada has improved. This reflects improving health status of the country. Moreover, since most individuals in the country are rich with adequate economic power, they can easily avail healthcare services provided by its private delivery systems. This has helped to lengthen life tenure of individuals in Canada. Infant Mortality Figure 7: Mortality Rate (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above line graph shows that infant mortality level in U.S. has significantly fallen with time. Low child death rate denotes a healthy future population of the country. Access Figure 8: Access to Healthcare (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above graph clearly shows that the amount of public healthcare expenditure in Canada is lesser than that of private healthcare expenditure. From the above context, it was found that even in U.S., private health expenditure was more than that of public expenditure. However, difference between public and private participation in Canadian health delivery market is greater than that in U.S. This signifies that healthcare sector is more commercialized in Canada compared to U.S. In addition, public sector has invested less in healthcare segment of the country as higher participation could crowd out private investments. Healthcare Workforce In 2006, it was estimated that approximately 1000000 individuals in Canada directly worked under the healthcare sector; however, that only comprised 6% of its total workforce. Some estimates show that from 1996 to 2005, aggregate proportion of healthcare workforce in Canada has significantly increased by almost 45%. Figure 9: Canadian Healthcare Workforce (Source: OECD, 2008) The above bar diagram shows that size of healthcare workforce, in terms of physicians, in Canada is smaller than that of U.S.; but is larger than Mexico. Even so, estimates are distinctly different in case of nursing workforce of the nation. Figure 10: Healthcare Workforce in Canada (Source: OECD, 2008) The above graph shows that proportion of nursing workforce in Canada is way higher than that of U.S. and Mexico. Figure 11: Growing Canadian Healthcare Workforce (Source: OECD, 2008) The above estimates show that proportion of healthcare workforce in Canada has substantially grown from 1990 to 2005. So, from the above context, it can be stated that healthcare workforce in Canada is booming and its improving health status clearly indicates skillful efficient services provided by associated personnel. Technology The Canadian economy is stable with the essence of its robust banking system and this has helped to enhance overall medical research and development activities. The country is the second largest exporter of electro-medical services. Canada had realized that technological superiority is an indispensible factor for determining quality of healthcare service delivered in a nation. Approximately 1.4 million types of medical devices are used at present in the Canadian healthcare market. This medical devices help to diagnose, treat and prevent various types of human diseases (Heath, 2002). The modern lasers, waveguides, genomic, metabolomic and nanoscale devices have been invented in the Canadian healthcare market with the help of superior technological knowhow. Biomedical Ethical Issue The Canadian Institute of Health Information (CIHI) is responsible of maintaining Canadian Organ Replacement Register (CORR). According to its records, there is a great disparity between amount of organs demanded and supplied in the Canadian market (Unger, 2014). So, supply and demand for solid organs like, pancreas, kidney, lung and heart, are highly unbalanced, which has become an ethical issue in this healthcare market. This is because according to the records of CIHI, total number of donated organs in the country is sufficient to meet the demand. Some researchers often claim that as quality of healthcare treatment is improving, life span of older individuals are also increasing; this boosts the aggregate demand for transplants in the country (Unger, 2014). In order to address this biomedical issue, public and private healthcare authorities in Canada strive to encourage commoners into donating their organs, before their death. On an average, almost 73% individuals in Canada are potential organ donors (Caplan, 1995). Among them, approximately 34% individuals own registered donation cards. The Canadians healthcare service authorities have realized that only by increasing aggregate amount of organ donations, scarcity and ethical issues can be resolved in its healthcare market (NUS, 1993). Analysis From the above analysis, it can be claimed that healthcare delivery system in Canada is highly developed. The country’s superior economic status and stability has helped to enhance quality of its healthcare delivery systems. Rising level of life expectancy and falling rate of child mortality in Canada point out improving health conditions. However, it should be noted that public expenditure towards health, in terms of GDP, in Canada is lesser than its private expenditure. This signified that healthcare market of the country is highly commercialized as most of the individuals have the purchasing power to afford medical treatments. The increasing number of workforce in Canadian healthcare sector and improving technological innovation indicates multiplicative growth in national health status. The country is facing a biomedical ethical issue regarding scarcity of donated organs; but with strategic organ donation encouragement programs, the issue can be surely addressed and resolved in the long run. Organized political and economic authorities in the country are considerably responsible for its superior healthcare service. Mexico Brief History Mexico was conquered as well as colonized by Spain in the 16th century. It was governed as Viceroyalty of Spain for almost three centuries. The country had attained its independence in the 18th century. Perhaps, this is why the nation is regarded as the most popular Spanish speaking country in the world, which houses a large number of Native North Americans. Prior to Spanish invasion in the 16th century, Mexico had complicated indigenous civilizations (CIA, 2014). Political Economic System The country experiences a Federal Republican form of governance and is politically divided in 31 states. Mexico had become an independent nation on 16th September, 1810 (CIA, 2014). The legal aspects of the nation are framed as per U.S. Constitutional Law Theory and the Civil Law system. The political head is Enrique Pena Nieto, who is the President. The government of the country is selected on basis of elections and some of its major political parties are Citizens Movement, Institutional Revolutionary Party, Labor Party, Mexican Green and Ecological Party (CIA, 2014). The economy of Mexico also follows free market principles. The industrial as well as agricultural sector of the country is developed and is primarily dominated by private governing authorities. Nevertheless, it should be noted that overall national income level of Mexico is relatively lower than that of U.S. and Canada. The per person income level of the country is almost one-third to that of U.S. After implementation of Free Trade Agreement, economy of the country has significantly grown; but during the global financial crisis, growth and economic stability of the nation have drastically fallen. As recorded in 2013, GDP per capita of the country was $15600 (CIA, 2014). Contribution of Mexico’s service sector to aggregate GDP is 59.8%, which is lesser compared to that of U.S. and Canada. The country’s labor force is 51.48 million, but present unemployment rate is only 4.9% (less than U.S. and Canada). Almost 52.3% of total population in the country lives below the estimated poverty line (CIA, 2014). Health Status Figure 12: Life Expectancy (Source: World Bank, 2014) The steep positively sloping line in the above figure denotes the improving health conditions or life expectancy in Mexico. Infant Mortality Figure 13: Infant Mortality (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above line diagram clearly implies that infant mortality level of Mexico is declining with time. This signifies improving health conditions in the country. Access Figure 14: Access to Healthcare (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above graph shows the merging trend lines of public and private healthcare expenditures in Mexico. In the initial years, it is found that private participation in healthcare delivery market of the country was higher compared to public participation. However, since 2010, private participation in Mexico’s healthcare delivery sector has been overshadowed due to higher public sector intervention. From the above context, it was found that more than 50% individuals in Mexico live below the poverty line. So, it is obvious that this large proportion of individuals in the country would not possess adequate purchasing power in order to avail required healthcare services from private delivery institutions. Thus, in order to assure that healthcare services are adequately available to this vulnerable proportion of individuals, public investments in the healthcare market has increased presently; this also helps to battle economic negativities that have enhanced after recession. Healthcare Workforce The healthcare workforce supply in Mexico is not adequate. The aggregate number of physicians, nurses and specialists in the country are lesser compared to the population that is served. Since supply of healthcare services in Mexico is lower than its market demand, average cost of medical treatment is very high. The country has only 7673 number of licensed doctors; of which 4690 doctors are found to regularly practice their services. In addition, physicians have a tendency to primarily serve in urbanized regions of the nation. So, state of healthcare delivery services in rural regions of the country is very poor. The supply of nursing services in this healthcare market is also scarce. From figures 10, 11 and 12, it can be understood that proportion of healthcare workforce in Mexico is lesser than that of U.S. and Canada. Technology Over time, state of technology in nearly all developing nations, including Mexico, is improving. The public healthcare expenditure in Mexico has remarkably improved over last few years. Public and private healthcare delivery systems of Mexico are at present trying to improve quality of their healthcare services by incorporating superior technologies. Telephone based healthcare advices are the commonly availed delivery services in Mexico. Such services are catered to more than 1 million individuals in the country. A special SMS (short message service) technology is widely utilized in the country for assessing the degree of malnutrition in children; this aims to lower the prevailing rate of child mortality (Ehrbeck, Henke & Kibasi, 2010). Even so, it is true that complex healthcare devices have not been invented in the country until now due to lack of adequate financial base. Biomedical Ethical Issue Organ trading is a term used for trading human organs. The data relating to the scale of organ trading in Mexico is extremely poor. Organ trafficking has become a widespread unethical practice in Mexican healthcare delivery sector. According to the views of World Trade Organization (WHO), illegal organ trading occurs when organs are removed from a human body by medical practitioners for illegal commercial transactions and not for transplantation. Researchers have found that there are black markets in Mexican healthcare market for the purpose of organ trading. Such an unethical practice leads to profiteering and human trafficking activities in Mexico (Millan, 2014). Some estimates have indicated that only 5% of the total organs donated in Mexico are utilized for the purpose of transplants. Many children and young individuals are kidnapped in Mexico for such purposes. Widespread poverty and legislative loopholes in Mexico are substantially responsible for such illegal practices (Keckley, 2011). In 2014, Congress government of the country has introduced the General Health Law, which states that organs of all individuals of the country would be donated after death by law, unless individuals claim otherwise. Despite this law, it is witnessed that patients in the country face substantial difficulties in acquiring organs for transplantation requirements (Millan, 2014). Analysis From the above analysis, it can be claimed that health status of Mexico is largely inferior to that of U.S. and Canada. The fact is that Mexico is a developing nation and its overall financial resource base is smaller compared to that of developed countries like, U.S. and Canada. Lack of adequate financial resources have lowered overall public and private expenditure on health in the nation. In addition, illegal issues encountered by Mexico like, that of organ trafficking, implies a poor legal and judicial system. The life expectancy and infant mortality of Mexico is worse than that of U.S. and Canada. Nonetheless, the public sector in the country is gradually increasing its health related expenditure. This in turn is presently contributing greatly towards improving healthcare delivery system in Mexico, thereby generating higher life expectancy and lower child mortality. Furthermore, it should be noted that supply of physicians and doctors in the country is not adequate, which is responsible for increasing cost of medical services. Though all individuals in a society deserve adequate healthcare services, yet in Mexico, the poor and vulnerable section of society lacks sufficient medical treatments. The conditions had worsened during the recession in 2008 (Keckley, 2011). The government of Mexico must realize that long-term economic growth is not feasible without improvement in national health outcomes. This is because; health has both intrinsic and extrinsic value. It helps to enhance overall productivity of a nation, thereby indirectly facilitating higher economic prosperity. Critical Review Figure 15: Life Expectancy (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above trend analysis shows that life expectancy in all the three nations (U.S., Mexico and Canada) have increased with time. However, life expectancy in Canada is highest followed by U.S. and Mexico. This proves that health status of Canada, in terms of life span, is most superior relative to Mexico and U.S. Figure 16: Infant Mortality (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above figure shows that infant mortality in Mexico was higher than that in U.S. and Canada, around 2002. Even so, in recent years, child mortality level in Mexico is sharply declining; this might be because of active public participation in Mexico’s healthcare delivery system. From the above figure, it can also be stated that Canada’s health status, in terms of infant mortality, is the best (Mikkonen & Raphael, 2010). Figure 17: Public Expenditure (Source: World Bank, 2014) The above figure suggests that public health expenditure in very low in Mexico compared to U.S. and Canada. The expenditure made in healthcare delivery system in U.S. is slightly more than that of Canada. Figure 18: Private Expenditure (Source: World Bank, 2014) From the above graph, it can be contended that level of private healthcare expenditure made in U.S. is higher than that of Canada and Mexico. Therefore, from above analyses of the three countries, it can be stated that health status of Canada is better than that of U.S. Nevertheless, health conditions in U.S. are remarkably better than that in Mexico. In addition, it should also be noted that public and private healthcare expenditure collectively is higher in U.S. compared to that made in Mexico and Canada. Even then, health conditions of U.S. are not as good as Canada (in terms of life expectancy and infant mortality); higher population pressure can be accounted for the same. Figure 19: Population Estimates (Source: Keckley & Coughlin, 2012) The above estimates suggest that proportion of estimated present and future youth population in Canada is lesser than that of U.S. and Mexico. Biomedical ethical issues regarding organ transplant and procurement are almost similar in Canada and U.S. The healthcare markets of both these nations are well-organized; yet, supply and demand of organs needed for transplants are found to be unbalanced. The improving health outcomes of the two countries have indirectly created such barriers. This is because longer life span of individuals has augmented the demand for transplantations. However, it is an ethical issue to productively convince all individuals to donate their organs. Yet, public health authorities of both U.S. and Canada are actively encouraging organ donors. It should be observed that biomedical ethical issue related to organ donation and procurement or organ trading in developing nations like, Mexico, are extremely detrimental issues in the healthcare market (Unger, 2014). The legal and political system of these nations must undertake strict actions in order to lower prevalence of such unethical practices. Furthermore, among U.S. and Canada, it can be claimed that health status in the latter is superior to the former On summing up, it can be said that Mexican healthcare service is in a poorer state compared to U.S. and Canadian health services (Barros, 2008). References Barros, R. (2008). Wealthier but Not Much Healthier: Effects of a Health Insurance Program for the Poor in Mexico. Department of Economics, Stanford University. Retrieved from http://economics.stanford.edu/files/JMP_RBarros.pdf. Cameron, C. (2007). Overview of U.S. Health Market. UCDVIS. Retrieved from http://cameron.econ.ucdavis.edu/e132/AMarket.pdf. Caplan, A. (1995). Organ Procurement and Transplantation: Ethical and Practical Issues. Retrieved from http://www.s-ge.com/en/filefield-private/files/2345/field_blog_public_files/1274. CIA. (2014). The World Fact Book. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html. Daemmrich, A. (2011). U.S. Healthcare Reform and the Pharmaceutical Industry. Harvard Business School. Retrieved from http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/12-015.pdf. Ehrbeck, T., Henke, N. & Kibasi, T. (2010). The emerging market in health care innovation. Retrieved from http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/health_systems_and_services/the_emerging_market_in_health_care_innovation. Heath, J. (2002). Health care as a commodity. Université de Montréal. Retrieved from http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~jheath/health.pdf. Jayanthi, A. (2014). 10 Biggest Technological Advancements for Healthcare in the Last Decade. Retrieved from http://www.beckershospitalreview.com/healthcare-information-technology/10-biggest-technological-advancements-for-healthcare-in-the-last-decade.html. Keckley, P. H. & Coughlin, S. (2012). The new health care workforce: Looking around the corner to future talent management. Deloitte. Retrieved fromhttps://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-UnitedStates/Local%20Assets/Documents/Health%20Reform%20Issues%20Briefs/us_chs_NewHealthCareWorkforce_032012.pdf . Keckley, P. H. (2011). 2011 Survey of Health Care Consumers in Mexico Key Findings, Strategic Implications. Deloitte. Retrieved from http://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/mx/Documents/life-sciences-health-care/mx%28es-mx%29Mexico2011HelathCareSurvey.pdf. Mikkonen, J. & Raphael, D. (2010). Social Determinants of Health: The Canadian Facts. Toronto: York University School of Health Policy and Management. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianfacts.org/The_Canadian_Facts.pdf. Millan, O. (2014). Mexico makes organ donation easier. Retrieved from http://www.sandiegored.com/noticias/22553/Mexico-makes-organ-donation-easier/. NUS. (1993). Biomedical Ethics in U.S. Public Policy. Retrieved from http://www.nus.edu.sg/irb/Articles/Biomedical%20Ethics%20in%20U.S.%20Public%20Policy.pdf. OECD. (2008). The Looming Crisis In the Health Workforce. WHO. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/hrh/migration/looming_crisis_health_workforce.pdf. Unger, D. (2014). The Canadian Bioethics Companion. Retrieved from http://www.upenn.edu/ldi/issuebrief2_5.html . World Bank. (2014). The Data Bank. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG. Read More