Gender Inequality and Education in Eastern Societies - Coursework Example

Gender inequality and education in Eastern Societies Gender inequality and education in Eastern Societies Introduction The development of gender inequalities in societies worldwide can be related to a particular phenomenon: in all families women have the key responsibility in regard to the care of the family members (Palenga-Möllenbeck 2013, p.364). Even if the traditional family structure has been highly changed, as a result of the extensive participation of women in the workplace, governments have not been proved capable of supporting the relevant transition (Palenga-Möllenbeck 2013, p.364). As a result women continue to face inequalities in their daily activities, including their studies, either in an academic or a professional context. This paper focuses on a specific aspect of gender inequality: gender inequality in education. Education is a critical part of all peoples’ life. In fact, education is considered as an indispensable requirement for the professional development of each individual. This means that the person who faces problems in accessing education of appropriate quality has limited chances to secure a job that would be related to important benefits/ remuneration. This paper helps to understand how gender inequalities in education could affect the position of women in the job market leading to further inequalities, such as inequalities related to the level of salary/ job benefits, as compared to the salary/ job benefits of men. In addition, the paper explains the various aspects of gender inequality in education, including education at academic level and in the workplace. Also, the paper addresses a critical issue: whether gender inequality in education is related to geography, i.e. whether there are areas whether gender inequalities in education are clearer. The case of Eastern societies and their relationship to gender inequalities is set as the key theme of this paper due to the following fact: in these societies the signs for gender inequality in education seem to be more, compared to Western societies. The paper shows the reasons of the above phenomenon and the potential interaction of this trend with other socio-cultural trends, such as the participation of women in the workplace. In this way, this paper is differentiated from existing studies at the following point: gender inequalities in education are presented and analyzed not only in a broad view, i.e. through theoretical perspectives, but also in practice, through their application in women’s daily life in societies where social and cultural pressures are quite strong, i.e. the Eastern societies. Literature Review Gender inequalities in education seem to be a common phenomenon in countries worldwide. However, the level at which such inequalities are developed in each society is not standardized. This fact is made clear if referring to the discrimination that women tend to face when trying to access educational schemes that are available for men in the same social or professional field. For example, in the study of Boulis & Jacobs (2003) the relationship between gender and the access of physicians to professional practice is explored. Data has been retrieved from ‘the Community Tracking Study (CTS) Physician Survey’ (Boulis & Jacobs 2003, p.62). Data is based on a series of phone interviews developed ‘between August 1996 and August 1997’ (Boulis & Jacobs 2003, p.62). The analysis of the above data has led to the following assumptions: a) female physicians ‘are not offered the same time for patients as male physicians’ (Boulis & Jacobs 2003, p.80) and b) the conditions under which female physicians are asking to make practice are of lower quality and of increased complexity compared to the conditions involved in the practice of male physicians (Boulis & Jacobs 2003, p.80-81). Van Den Brink & Stobbe (2009) focus on gender inequalities as developed in academia. According to the above researchers in the specific sector gender inequalities have been resulted because of people’s beliefs on the characteristics, including the gender, of ‘the ideal scientist’ (Van Den Brink & Stobbe 2009, p.451). Another view that has promoted gender inequalities in academia is the following: science, as a sector, has been considered as being more appropriate for men (Van Den Brink & Stobbe 2009, p.451). In other words, science is believed to be a field mostly related to masculinity (Van Den Brink & Stobbe 2009, p.451). In the study of Liu (2011) an important implication of gender inequalities in education is highlighted: poor educational background can negatively influence the level of payment of women, as members of the workforce (Liu 2011, p.840). As a result in countries where the access of women to education is more difficult than for men, the gender earnings gap in the workplace is higher (Liu 2011, p.840). In the case of China where the access of women in education is still not equal with men, the gender earnings gap tends to be increased, reaching ‘the 17.5% in 1995’ (Liu 2011, p.839). In addition, gender inequalities can be often related to critical educational decisions. For example, women are more likely to choose specific educational field, a fact that affects their professional development in the long term (Jannellia & Smyth 2008). This phenomenon is common in Western countries and in Arab countries, as verified through the study of Smits & Huisman (2013). Apart from the workplace, education is of critical importance for understanding risks related to everyday life. For example, education can help people to understand the health risks of their sexual life (Adamczyk & Greif 2011, p.654). The relationship between education and exposure to health risks, especially in regard to sexual life, is explored in the study of Adamczyk & Greif (2011). In the above study, reference is made, as an example, to the impact of educational background on ‘the sexual behavior of women in Sub-Saharan Africa’ (Adamczyk & Greif 2011, p.654). The review of data retrieved through a National Demographic Research, in Kenya, has revealed that women in Sub-Saharan Africa are more likely to develop a risky sex-behavior when their educational background is poor (Adamczyk & Greif 2011, p.664). This risky behavior may be involved with education either directly, i.e. if women are not aware of the risks related to their sex behavior, or indirect, i.e. when women ‘do not have the appropriate negotiation skills for avoiding such risks’ (Adamczyk & Greif 2011, p.664). At this point reference should be made to the study of Erdogan & Yildirim & Tosuner (2012). The above researchers note that a high educational background is usually related to a better health status, possibly because the individual involved is more aware of the consequences of food/ style of life on his health, a fact that prevents him from being exposed to severe health risks (Erdogan & Yildirim & Tosuner 2012, p.1861). The relationship between gender inequalities and education could be explored using another perspective: through education people can, possibly, change their views on genders, meaning the role of each gender in society. This issue is analyzed in the study of Anand (2009). According to the above study education is often critical for explaining the role of genders in a particular social and cultural context (Anand 2009, p.96). In India the explanation of the role of genders is considered as critical for securing social piece and unity (Anand 2009, p.96). Social work is the scientific sector through which ‘gender sensitization’ (Anand 2009, p.97) is mostly attempted. On the other hand, Kassem (2012, p.235) notes that in countries where the access of women to education is easier, women can easier enter the political life, as members of political parties. Such potentials are more in democratic regimes, where the access of women to education is quite easy, compared to autocratic regimes (Kassem 2012, p.235). Another factor influencing the career of women in politics is the GDP of the country; in countries where the growth of economy is significant women have more chances to enter politics successfully; in poor countries the potentials of women to participate in their country’s political life is limited (Kassem 2012, p.235). At the same time, Bisikaa & Ntatab & Konyani (2009) have explained that gender inequalities in education can have another implication: they can make the entry of women to education more difficult. In a study developed in Malawi (Bisikaa & Ntatab & Konyani 2009, p.287) it was made clear that girls were more likely to face hostility when trying to enter education, a problem that can exist even in the initial phases of education, i.e. ‘during primary school’ (Bisikaa & Ntatab & Konyani 2009, p.287). The level of gender inequalities in education is also discussed in the study of Evertsson et al. (2009). In the above study the changes in gender inequalities, as related to education, are presented especially in regard to three countries, i.e. ‘Netherlands, Sweden and USA’ (Evertsson et al. 2009, p.210). It is noted that gender inequalities are likely to be at high levels in the workplace when education is poor. However, this finding refers to all aspects of work apart from earnings gap; the latter seems to be relatively independent, at least in the case of USA, from the educational background of individuals involved, no matter if they are men or women (Evertsson et al. 2009, p.210-211). Narrowed topic of research After reviewing a series of studies published in regard to gender inequalities and education I would like to focus on a specific aspect of the above topic: gender inequalities and education as appeared in Eastern Societies. Two Eastern countries, China and India, have been chosen as examples for showing the relationship between gender inequalities and education. Through the literature review it has been revealed that the relationship between gender inequalities and education has not been adequately explored. Indeed, in most of the studies emphasis is given to gender inequalities as related to the workplace, the level of payment, the exposure to health risks and so on. The relationship between gender inequalities and education is not particularly discussed in the literature; this paper could help to cover this gap and to show the relevance of this theme to Eastern Societies. Research questions Therefore, the research questions on which this paper should be based are the following: 1) how gender inequalities interact with education in Eastern Societies? Reference is made, in particular, to the role of education in controlling gender inequalities, the level at which genders have access to education and the factors that prevent the limitation of gender inequalities in education; 2) how gender inequalities in education could be eliminated; Emphasis is given to gender inequalities as developed in Eastern Societies; the measures taken in Western Societies for addressing this problem could be also used, after being appropriately customized, in Eastern Societies. Forms of data The research developed for this study will be quantitative. Data available in National Surveys, in Eastern countries, will be used for exploring the issues set through the study’s research questions. The data retrieved through the above source will be analyzed and discussed using also the findings of studies that have been published in regard to this field. In other words, this study will be primarily based on quantitative research but qualitative research will be also involved, for verifying the findings of primary data. In any case the units of analysis would be specific individuals: women in China and India will be this paper’s units of analysis. In regard to the above units of analysis there are no limitations of age or social class; rather the behavior/ daily life of women of different age and of different social/ educational background will be studied, as revealed through surveys/ studies, for exploring this study’s themes. Conclusion Gender inequality has been proved to be closely related to education. However, the modes of interaction between gender inequality and education are not standardized; different social and cultural characteristics of societies internationally lead to different levels of gender inequality. Also, in societies with similar social structure gender inequality may be differentiated either because of different political environment or because of temporary economic pressures, as such pressures can result to gender inequalities in a variety of fields, i.e. not just in the workplace. In other words, gender inequality is necessarily depended on education but not at similar level; in Eastern Societies also, which have many common social and cultural characteristics, a similar trend can be identified. References Adamczyk, A. & Greif, M. (2011) Education and risky sex in Africa: Unraveling the link between women’s education and reproductive health behaviors in Kenya. Social Science Research 40, 654-665. Anand, M. (2009) Gender in Social Work Education and Practice in India. Social Work Education 28(1), 96-105. Bisikaa, T. & Ntatab, P. & Konyani, S. (2009) Gender-violence and education in Malawi: a study of violence against girls as an obstruction to universal primary school education. Journal of Gender Studies 18(3), 287-294. Boulis, A. & Jacobs, J. (2003) An Analysis of the Impact of Gender on Physician Practice Patterns. Journal of Health & Social Policy 18(1), 57-85. Erdogan, S.& Yildirim, D. & Tosuner, O. (2012) The Effect of Gender Inequality in Education on Health: Evidence from Turkey. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice 12(31), 1860-1866. Evertsson, M. & England, P. & Mooi-Reci, I. & Hermsen, J. & Bruijn, J. & Cotter, D.(2009). Is Gender Inequality Greater at Lower or Higher Educational Levels?: Common Patterns in the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 16(2), 210-241. Jannellia, C. & Smyth, E. (2008) Mapping gender and social background differences in education and youth transitions across Europe. Journal of Youth Studies 11(2), 213-232. Kassem, F. (2012) Can women break through? Women in municipalities: Lebanon in comparative perspective. Womens Studies International Forum 35, 233-255. Liu, H. (2011) Economic Reforms and Gender Inequality in Urban China. Economic Development and Cultural Change 839-876. Palenga-Möllenbeck, E. (2013) Care Chains in Eastern and Central Europe: Male and Female Domestic Work at the Intersections of Gender, Class, and Ethnicity. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 11(4), 364-383. Smits, J. & Huisman, J. (2013) Determinants of educational participation and gender differences in education in six Arab countries. Acta Sociologica 56(4), 325-346. Van Den Brink, M. & Stobbe, L. (2009) Doing Gender in Academic Education: The Paradox of Visibility. Gender, Work and Organization 16(4), 451-470. Read More