Culture and Public Policy - Assignment Example

 Culture and Public Policy Introduction Culture has been variously described as a distinctive set of principles, conduct, and morals generated over time and assumed in universally accepted model by individuals recipients. These modeled collective communications not only convey specific, private personality to specific group members, but also constitute the exceptional individuality of the particular group. These features of specific confined consciousness draw upon ecological aspects, donations of personal cluster members, and bonds to sacrosanct and material customs. Parochial information, developing impulsively via numerous conduits connecting illogical and logical deliberations, form the cherished affiliations that folks often cherish within their group settings thus helping the individual identify with a particular group apart from his immediate family (Bruckerhoff). Culture has also been articulated as the critical part of divergence and variance resolution in the society. (LeBaron 1), depicts culture as the ‘underground rivers that run through our lives and relationships, giving us messages that shape our perceptions, attributions, judgments, and ideas of self and other.’ LeBaron however asserts that culture is more than the conventional view which presupposes only the common features like attire, food, and language or even race, ethnicity, and nationality but which also incorporates socioeconomic groups, gender, capacity and disability, political and spiritual attachment, language, and gender among others. Culture has been described as the collective ‘shared values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, norms artifacts and patterns of behavior’ (LeBaron 1). Culture and Public Policy Public policy has universally been linked to issues in education and welfare of families as regards to financial, political, and cultural discourses. This has been reflected in the public policies adopted by those in authority underlying their cultural leanings and inclinations. Modern culture that has incorporated modern forms of capitalism has been noted to tilt adversely into individualism rather than the traditional cross-knit societal values. Gale argues that in the United States and many other western capitalist societies, the traditional norms whereby governments sought to advance ‘social provision and opportunity’ have been overturned by the contemporary political agendas that favor individualism and free enterprise while regarding those less endowed as ‘free loaders’ lacking any initiative to fend for themselves (2). This has led to the perpetual capitalistic tendencies of shifting resources from the less endowed to those more already capable in a ‘form of neoliberal politics that places hyper-capitalism at the for-front. This consumerist trend has also been labeled a ‘culture change’ describing the influence of societal and cultural capital demands that impact on decision making through the assimilation of information and financial inducements confronting individuals hence motivating their behavior patterns. The cultural capital influences comprise the role of parenting, relatives and close acquaintances; institutions like colleges and corporations; society and environs; and broader public influences like the media. The cultural capital is reflected in definite principles, outlook or communal customs that steer the behavioral intentions that people espouse on certain decisions. These are reflected in the attitude and decisions taken over financial stimuli, guidelines and legislation, and aspect of information, to impel definite conduct and eventually opinion in the fundamental cultural capital (Knott et al., 2008). Population and societal transformations within the last few decades have also had a considerable impact on policy conflicts. According to Warfield, (qtd in Dennis, Sandole and Hugo) "Changing demographics, coupled with the awakening of new special interest groups, have transformed the landscape of policy conflict from one in which relatively homogeneous stakeholder groups operated in parochially defined issue arenas, to one which is increasingly heterogeneous, encroaching upon sacred policy cows."(p. 177) Cultural Instruments Cultural policy is associated with all the main subjects of our society whether they are: financial segmentation, ethnic considerations, foreign affairs, information technology, schooling, and community advancement. Cultural policies are set from either the nuclear family setting at breakfast table to corporate boardrooms, cabinet meetings, and religious gatherings, among others. How we decide to educate our children, language, customs, and history of your ethnic group shape your cultural leanings. This is translated to communal decisions, corporate, religious, among others. The media convergence including television, newspapers, digital media including the internet express our cultural policy. Cultural is therefore multidimensional and is hence articulated through several media incorporating artistic expressions and decisions concerning our lives that form the general public policy (Atlas). Atlas asserts that cultural policies need not be literally public policy though the government often supports cultural aspects, ‘in the United States, policy and policymaking are more often implicit than explicit, and thus they are frequently invisible.’(pg.65-6). As a result of modern trends including the privatization, commercialization, globalization, demographic shits, and technological advances that have greatly eroded conventional cultural ecology, making public policy on culture very complex. Nevertheless cultural policy is imbedded in various spheres including education, health, environment society structure, or economic advances, ’cultural policy ranges from trade agreements to real estate subsidies, from freedom of expression to transportation’. In China, the government is the principle driver in cultural policies and even the nongovernmental organizations rely on the authorities to fund and oversee their activities and much significance is laid on adhering to ‘national strategies’ (Gengsheng & Yue, 2001). Two Sides of Culture Culture is also reflected in academic studies that highlight cultural influences by various societies and sectors. In this category, there have been scholars who have tried to draw a distinction between various cultural studies. This has mainly evolved around the presumption of scientific or ‘factual’ culture and the more idealistic intellectual culture that is hypothetical rather than ‘real’. Rochberg, (2006) has however dismissed this including C.P. Snow’s 1959 Rede lecture which made the presupposition of ‘two cultures’: scientific and literal intellectuals with the former been alluded as more superior or ‘a product of the philosophical orientation to science as an embodiment of universal truths about nature as well as cold war pressures on the West to improve educational standards in science.’ (pg.1). Rochberg hypothesis was that both fields are fully enmeshed within the society and in dual roles that are complementary hence fully integrated. Academic culture has usually been based on scholarly studies that are enhanced by intellectual exploration from existing work. Lynch (2006, pg. 2) observed that, ‘the essence of scholarly work is building upon the scholarship that has come before: extending it, elucidating it, and critiquing it in an explicit fashion.’ This has now been enhanced by modern technology that uses digital technology to manipulate data using algorithms and computational agents that are able to do ‘data mining’ and ‘text mining’ of documented databases extracting leads and propositions that direct the way toward scheduling novel scientific research. The disciplines that have particularly taken advantage f the advanced technology are in the life sciences, intelligence enquiry, and image management and trade competitive intelligence in the business-related. However this has been especially exploited the field of biomedical literal language, ontology, among others. Various agencies governmental, non-governmental, commercial, and educational have converged to emphasize this academic cultural phenomenon that seeks to exploit the advances in digital technologies in a new cultural policy (Lynch). Culture as an economic tool has now increasingly been embraced by various countries as they have come to terms with the importance of supporting cultural industries that employ many people in the community including music, theatre, and other media. UNESCO terms cultural industries as those engaged in ‘production and commercialization of creative contents which are intangible and cultural in nature’. These are either in form of a good or service including “printing, circulate and multimedia, audiovisual, phonographic and cinematographic productions as well as crafts and design” (pg. 3). Conversely the concept of creative industries encompasses both the cultural elements and also artistic productions. There is therefore an element of creativity in the arts in all media and personal aspirations. As the importance of culture in public policy stratagem becomes more apparent to governments, the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has initiated a series of programs aimed at standardization methodologies of all cultural and creative industries through statistical mapping called cultural mapping 91). This will involve wide-ranging endeavors aimed at “identify all relevant cultural economic activities, organizations, employment and links in a given area” (6). Creative Culture In the UK the precursor of cultural mapping, the Ministry of for Creative Industries and Tourism’s department of culture, media and sport introduced the world’s first cultural industries mapping documents in 1998 and 2001 that classified the country’s creative industries. The UK has evolved a system called “Creative Industries Production System” (CIPS) which has demarcated the following categories: advertising; architecture; art and antiques markets; crafts; design; designer fashion; film and video; interactive leisure software; music; performing arts; publishing; software and computer services, and lastly television and radio (UNESCO, 2). Among the environmental conservation green enthusiasts, corporate culture has been underlined as a major factor in influencing the attitudes prevalent as ‘the culture of the individual organization or company that will support or negate green efforts. According to Ott (qtd in Stewart, 14), organizational culture has three sources: societal culture resided in; nature of organizations business; and lastly ‘beliefs, values and basic assumptions held by the management of the corporation. These factors are interrelated to the internal and external inspirational aspects hence influencing the sensitivity to environmental issues affecting the society. Stewart identifies leadership as critical in setting the pace for both organizational and public policy and which is inadvertently influenced by the wider societal factors. (Stewart 25). Wallace has alleged that divergence in culture involving policy-making bodies and stakeholder groups obscure public strategy arguments. He argues that stakeholders’ sensitivity to these cultural aspects is vital to have a more tolerable appreciation of policy conflicts. "Changing demographics, coupled with the awakening of new special interest groups, have transformed the landscape of policy conflict from one in which relatively homogeneous stakeholder groups operated in parochially defined issue arenas, to one which is increasingly heterogeneous, encroaching upon sacred policy cows."(pg. 177) American Cultural Influence The influence of culture as a public policy has not been very much emphasized within the United Sates but in many other countries, the predominance of what is perceived as ‘American cultural imperialism’ has led to several nations setting up public policy departments and ministries that aim at preserving their national identity or culture. In the 1970s and ‘80s many European, Asian, African, and even Latin American countries witnessed numerous anti-American protests as they denounced the pervading influence of American consumerism, read greed, movies, attire that were seen as eroding their national make-up. This was exemplified by the former French Minister of Culture Jack Lang’s speech labeled ‘The Higher the Satellite, the Lower the Culture’, an objection of American cultural dominance in the French society. The advent of globalization has however seen this latent anti-Americanism dissipating as protests are now against the literal decline of national cultural identities replaced by ‘global village’ mentality dominated by the ease of movement of goods, communication, and cultural artifacts mainly through the internet (Gienow-Hecht). Nevertheless Warwick (1993) argues that "When conflict is perceived through the lens of cultural values, responses tend to be non-rational. Individuals or groups are guided by affective histories that largely determine reactions to conflict."(186) Warfield finds that "there is a positive correlation between the status of relationship between public officials and stakeholder, degree of stakeholder inclusiveness in policy formation, and negotiations posture."(184) Religious Cultural Influence Religious cultural influence on public policy was most profoundly experienced in the United States during the G. W. Bush administration when right wing policies were clearly advanced by the ‘born again’ president’s administration. The influence of religion is however more profound in theocratic states especially in the Middle East including Israel and the Arab led government of which the most advanced stage is found in the Islamic Republic of Iran which operates on the Koranic Sharia Law doctrines. In New Zealand, the influence of religious organizations and church has ensured the country is kept nuclear free due the powerful lobby prevalent in New Zealander society. Historically, the most prominent religious culture has that advocated by Jesus Christ of non-violent protest exemplified by the Indian politician Mahandas K. Gandhi peaceful protest that led to independence for India in late 1940s. Other influential religious leaders who have impacted greatly on religious cultural aspirations are Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1960s racial struggles in America, Corazon Aquino overthrowing peacefully a brutal dictatorship in Philippines in the 1980s, and the Dalai Lama nowadays among others (Consedine). Gender Issues and Culture Cultural influence on public policy has however been eroded by lack of candid information or the seemingly misinformation from media or gossip. The importance of having the correct information was examined by researchers on education policy conducted by Knowledge Networks which revealed that the abrasive media influenced political public policies were always based on wrong assumptions that often led to ambivalent decisions being made due to lack of proper perspectives. A survey of 2,500 respondents and an additional 700 public school teachers nationwide by Knowledge Networks depicted a ten percent divide between those supporting school funding and those opposed based on their information facts fend in a 51 percent vs. 61 percent voting pattern (West). Feminine advocates attribute language one of the aspects of culture, illustrate the differences in gender disparity whereby traditionally and in many cultures across the world, men have been predominantly dominant. This is a characteristic of communication between the two sexes which is typified by cross cultural conversational styles which also demonstrate the social status women are held within the larger society (Torppa). Public policy in regards to cultural expression has been particularly vocal on women affairs. In many traditional settings globally, the role of women was conventionally domesticated and home bound. However modern women have emancipated themselves from these rigid cultural roles to positions of equality and devolved male dominance in several regions of the world. These freedoms are nevertheless less prevalent in some quarters of the globe particularly in the unyielding Islamic states of the Middle East where in some countries like Saudi Arabia women are not allowed not only not to expose their body parts including their faces, but also to vote, or have driving licenses! This parochial male chauvinism has led to women forming several lobby groups and organizations to articulate their issues which are often submerged by cultural norms. The lobby groups however help to influence public policy to their favor by actively engaging the media and other forms of expression including civil protests which could normally be frowned upon within their cultural setting (Berkowitz). Cultural Influence According to the Nobel prize-winning, economic historian, Douglass North (qtd in Dennis 8) culture is, “the inter-generational transfer of knowledge, values and other factors influencing behavior” (8). Dennis has designed a quadrant typology that illustrates the effect of having favorable cultural policies that enhance entrepreneurial enterprises; “culturally driven ideas and behaviors that support or stimulate entrepreneurial activity are labeled Favorable, and vice versa.” (9) This reveals how culture is pervasive in almost all spheres of human activity, influencing the thought patterns and behaviors of individuals as regards both economic and religious activities. Public policy in regards to economic policies is therefore dependent on having favorable cultural policies that enhance the entrepreneur spirit of citizens in society. Source: Dennis (2005) Conclusion The impact of culture on public policy can discerned from the family circle, religious affiliation, education, economic and other spheres that influence those persons appointed to decision making positions. Modern cultural practices have allowed the hitherto disadvantaged groups emancipate themselves from positions of deprivation and discrimination. These include physically challenged individuals, women, race and other groups that were deprived opportunities to advance themselves either economically or in education due to then prevailing customs. Public policy has moreover being hindered by cultural practices in many parts of the world that still practice decadent cultural traditions which affect the disadvantaged groups. These include religious practices, female genital mutilation (FGM) in some parts of the world, and capital punishment which have effectively blocked many progressive amendments in laws to curtail them. Cultural expression is however increasingly gaining prominence in many countries who have advocated a cultural public policy to preserve their heritage as well as promote practicing artists who enhance their cultural practices. Works Cited Atlas, Caron. 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"“The Two Cultures” and the Historical Perspective on Science as a Culture." The Forum on Public Policy (2006): 1-28. Steven Rathgeb Smith and Helen Ingram. "Rethinking Policy Analysis: Citizens, Community, and the Restructuring of Public Services." The Good Society: Volume 11, No. 1, (2002): 55-60. Stewart, Khalilah M. "Trends, Factors and Public Policy Influences on the Greening of Industry: A Review of the Automobile and Building Sectors." 2001. Torppa, Cynthia Burggraf. Gender Issues: Communication Differences in Interpersonal Relationships. Morrow County,: Ohio State University Extension, The Ohio State University , 2002. Trauth, Eileen M. The Culture of an Information Economy: Influences and Impacts in the Republic of Ireland. University Park, PA: School of Information Sciences and Technology - The Pennsylvania State University, 2003. UNESCO. Understanding Creative Industries: Cultural statistics for public-policy making. Geneva: UNESCO & Global Alliance for Cultural Diversity, 2006. West, William Howell & Martin. Program on Education Policy and Governance . Boston: Harvard University/ Knowledge Networks, 2009. Yue, Tang Gengsheng & Wu. "To Influence the Government Policy:The Experience from the Library Society of China." WORLD LIBRARY AND INFORMATION CONGRESS: 75TH IFLA GENERAL CONFERENCE AND COUNCIL. 23-27 August 2009,Milan, Italy: The library Society of China (LSC), 2009. 1-14. Warfield, Wallace Public-Policy Conflict Resolution: The Nexus Between Culture and Process, in Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice, Dennis J.D. Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe, eds. Manchester University Press, Manchester, U.K pp. 176-193; 1993 Read More