The Role of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights - Research Paper Example

The role of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Introduction The Office of the United Nation Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) was createdby the UN General Assembly in December 1993 following recommendations by the World Conference on Human Rights earlier the same year (Taylor and Francis Group 2003, 39). The post was established for the purpose of promoting and monitoring the protection of international human rights pursuant to the UN’s human rights conventions and treaties. In this regard, the OHCHR plays a pivotal role within the UN’s system for the protection and promotion of international standards of human rights. The OHCHR also plays an important role in obtaining international consensus on a standard of basic human rights and the need for safeguarding those rights in the wider objective of maintaining world peace. This paper therefore proposes to demonstrate the role of the OHCHR within the context of the UN’s mission for achieving global standards for the protection of human rights. The research is divided into four parts. The first part of this paper will examine the UN’s international human rights goals and objectives. The second part will set out the various activities and agencies of the UN’s international human rights system. Finally the third part of this paper will explore the creation of the OHCHR and its mandate. The fourth part of this paper will evaluate the UN’s international human rights system and will evaluate the significant role of the OHCHR within this system. Ultimately it will be argued that the role of the OHCHR is not merely for the policing of international human rights violations, but to encourage and monitor the setting of standards for the international protection of human rights. This is accomplished primarily through providing a centralized and cohesive body for coordinating the various activities and missions within the UN human rights system. I. The UN’s International Human Rights Goals and Objectives The UN Charter of 1945 signed in San Francisco, specifically refers to human rights, but was primarily focused on human security. In his address to the General Assembly of the UN on November 10, 2001, Kofi Annan, the UN’s Secretary-General declared that a core requirement of human security was for the respect for “fundamental human rights”. Annan further emphasized that both human rights and human security were the primary objectives of the UN (Ramcharan 2004, 39). The UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (UDHR), the first UN Treaty on human rights, reflects this objective. The UDHR proclaims that the : Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world (Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, Preamble). Upon adopting the UDHR in 1948, the UN delegates acknowledged that the instrument was not a binding piece of legislation but was a “statement of principles” (Risse and Sikkink 2002, 1). These principles are embodied in the thirty Articles of the UDHR and include basic human rights ranging from the right to life, to the right to work and the right to rest (Risse and Sikkink 2002, 2). Many of the rights contained in the UDHR have been incorporated into domestic legislations, constitutions and many international treaties (Risse and Sikkink 2002, 3). Since adopting the UDHR, there have been at least 8 major UN treaties on human rights and each member state of the UN are a party to at least one of them (Bayefsky 2001, 3). These treaties are the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination 1969, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1976, the International Covenant on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women 1981, the Convention Against Torture, and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 1987, the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1990, the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families 2003 and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2008 (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, n.d.). Cumulatively, these various treaties form a part of the UN human rights system and they are designed to achieve universal respect for and observance of human dignity and value of all individuals (Smith 2007, 26). Together each of these treaties and conventions as well as the UDHR are referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights (Smith 2007, 35). The UN describes the International Bill of Human Rights as: The ethical and legal basis for all human rights work of the United Nations and provide the foundation upon which the international system for the protection and promotion of human rights has been developed (UN Fact Sheet No. 22 1993, 2). Ultimately, the UN’s system of international human rights is designed to produce universal standards for the protection and respect of the basic human rights enunciated in each of its conventions (UN Economic and Social Council 2003, 2). In this regard, the UN’s strives to obtain a universal consensus on an international framework that sets standards for the identification and protection of human rights (UN Economic and Social Council 2003, 2). This particular mission is predicated on the goals and objectives of the UN Charter and its original goals. The UN Charter 1945 clearly states that its goal is to cultivate “friendly relations among nations based” upon mutual “respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination” (Claude and Weston 1993, 23). The UN Charter goes on to state that the UN’s purpose is to obtain “international cooperation” in the encouragement and promotion of respect for human rights for all mankind without exception (Claude and Weston 1993, 23). Articles 1(3), 13 and 55 require UN Member States to follow this mandate on the bases of observance and promoting respect for fundamental human rights (UN Charter 1945 Article 1(3), 13 and 55). The UN Charter 1945 was preceded by an aggressive condemnation of human rights violations committed by the Nazis during the Second World War (Morsink 1999, 12) The general consensus was that violations of and disrespect of human rights was directly linked to the kind of conflict that gave way to the World Wars (Morsink 1999, 12) . This theory was obviously embraced by the UN and is reflected in the UN Charter 1945. The obvious theme of the Charter, is that respecting and protecting human rights is critical for maintain world peace. In this regard, the International Bill of Human Rights is primarily aimed at promoting a respect for universal standards of human rights with a view to sustaining and promoting world peace. II. The UN’s Human Rights Activities and Agencies The UN Charter, does not make provision for enforcement of human rights (Boulesbaa 1999, 100). The closest the UN Charter comes to requiring enforcement is found in Chapter VII of the 1945 Charter. Chapter VII confers upon the UN Security the authority to take military or other action to preserve or restore the peace if it is decided that there is breach of or threat to peace “or an act of aggression” against another Member State which could be accompanied by serious human rights violations (UN Charter 1945, Ch. VII). In the final analysis, compliance with and enforcement of the UN’s International Bill of Human Rights is virtually voluntary. This is particularly so since the Bill is not a legally binding body of law and relies entirely on commitments and loyalties to treaty obligations. Even so, hundreds of Non-government Organizations and human rights watch groups appraise the status of human rights violations by reference to the International Bill of Rights (Morsink 1999, xii). Even so, it has been particularly difficult for the UN to command and secure universal respect for basic human rights. The war on terror has presented challenges for even the most liberal of nations. Moreover, compliance with a universal understanding of human rights is particularly challenging in those countries with a long history of human rights violation. In many cases obtaining compliance with the mandate of the international bill of human rights requires changing the way state officials relate to their national population. Invariably this can require reconstruction of state institutions, civil societies and reorganizing government commitments (Anderlini and Shoemaker n.d., 28). Ramcharan (2004) explains that human rights violations are occurring all over the world and include disrespect for both political and civil rights as well as violations of social, cultural and economic rights (7). Many of these violations take the form of “arbitrary and summary executions”, suspicious disappearances, slavery, “violence against women”, exploitation of children, discriminating against minorities, widespread poverty, lack of access to education and health facilities and the spread of AIDS (Ramcharan 2004, 7). Human rights violations are typically occurring in states with weak institutions and under government who adhere to the concept of sovereignty as a means of escaping the obligation to safeguard human rights (Ramcharan 2004, 8). During times of conflict, human rights are typically the first casualty (Brysk 2007, 1). Moreover, in countries with diverse ethnic groups, the emphasis is on collective rather than individual human interests (Chen 2006, 492). Unquestionably, these challenges to obtaining universal consensus on a definition and application of basic standards of human rights could not be achieved by merely making declarations that are technically non-binding and depend almost entirely on voluntary subscription. In order to achieve its purpose of encouraging and promoting a universal standard on human rights and respect for those standards, the UN has set up a system of human rights instruments and agencies (Megret and Hoffman 2003, 314-342). In this regard, the UN’s International Bill of Human Rights is linked to treaty bodies that are responsible for monitoring the implementation of these treaty obligations into national laws (Zehra and Arat 2006, 16). It is only after these treaty obligations are implemented by national laws that they become legally binding on the Member State. The relevant treaty bodies are, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, the Human Rights Committee, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the Committee Against Torture, the Committee on the Rights of the Child and the Committee on Migrant Workers (Bayefsky 2001, 4). These treaty bodies typically meet in Geneva and are organized by the UHCHR (Bayefsky 2001, 4). The role of the UHCHR will be explored in greater detail in Part III of this paper. The treaty bodies usually meet at specific interims throughout the year. To begin with, all Member States are required to prepare national reports on the degree to which national standards, policies and practices are complying with treaty obligations. When the treaty bodies meet, they review the reports by Member States with the relevant Member State’s representative present. The treaty body will then draw conclusions about the sufficiency of the Member State’s compliance with its treaty obligations (Bayefsky 2001, 4). Another function of the various treaty bodies is for hearing and investigating individual complaints of human rights violations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention against Torture, and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Bayefsky 2003, 34). Perhaps more importantly, the treaty bodies of the UN also make substantial contributions to generating knowledge about the International Human Rights standards by publishing General comments or by making thoroughly researched recommendations (Parker 2007, 1). III. The Creation and Mandate of the OHCHR Zehra and Arat (2006) explain that the UN is an inter-governmental network which is structured into bodies, affiliates and agencies each or which are either directly or indirectly involved in human rights activities (16). The authority for setting up these various bodies, affiliates and agencies is contained in the UN Charter (Zehra and Arat 2006, 16). Acting under this authority the Economic and Social Council was set up to research and make suggestions on a number of global issues which include human rights issues and concerns (Zehra and Arat 2006, 17). Article 68 of the UN Charter 1945 confers authority on the UN Security Council to “set up commissions in economic and social fields” for the purpose of promoting human rights (UN Charter 1945, Article 68). The Security Council which is comprised of the five permanent members of the UN set up the Commission on Human Rights in 1946 (Zehra and Arat 2006, 17). The Commission on Human Rights first convened in 1946 and among its first resolutions, the Commission noted that it did not have the authority to investigate communications relative to violations of individual human rights (Gaer 2005, 2). One of the ways that the UN dealt with this lack of power was the creation of various “special procedures” aimed at investigating human rights violations, conducting specific national investigations and compiling public reports of its findings (Gaer 2005, 3). To this end, the UN’s General Assembly and the Commission on Human Rights meet each year to review UN activities and consider the appropriate action to be taken with respect to future work in promoting and protecting human rights (Lawson and Bertucci 2005, 722). At a World Conference on Human Rights in 1993, the General Assembly reviewed the progress made in promoting and protecting human rights since its creation under the UN Charter (UN Nations World Conference on Human Rights 1993, 1). The key objectives of the World Conference underscore the role of the OHCHR which was created almost immediately following the Conference. The key objectives of the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993 can be summarized as follows: 1. To evaluate the UN’s progress in human rights promotion and protection since adopting the UDHR and to identify any and all barriers to its success and how those barriers can be eradicated. 2. To evaluated the link between “development and enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights as well as civil and political rights” and highlighting the significance of “creating conditions” where all mankind can be assured of the specific rights contained in the International Bill of Human Rights (UN Nations World Conference on Human Rights 1993, 1). 3. To identify methods for improving the implementation of standards and instruments for the International Bill of Human Rights. 4. To examine and appraise how effective or ineffective the UN’s system of promoting human rights has been. 5. To devise a scheme for improvement of the UN’s system for encouraging and promoting the protection of human rights. 6. To make recommendations for promoting and protecting human rights (UN Nations World Conference on Human Rights 1993, 1). The World Conference considered that one of the main ways in which the UN could meet its objectives for the promotion and protection of human rights was by the creation of OHCHR. The primary purpose of the OHCHR was for monitoring and harmonizing the UN’s human rights systems. In response to this recommendation the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 48/141 on 20 December 1993 which specifically created the OHCHR (UN Resolution 4/141 of 1993). Articles 1 through 8 of UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993 set forth the duties and qualifications of the OHCHR each of which are a manifestation of the role the office plays within the UN’s human rights systems. To start with the OHCHR is required to be of “high moral standing and personal integrity” and is also required to be a person with expertise in the field of human rights and must have “general knowledge and understanding of diverse cultures” thereby facilitating impartiality (UN Resolution 48/148 of 1993 Article 2(a)). The OHCHR is also required to be appointed by the UN’s Secretary-General and shall be identified as holding the rank of Under-Secretary General (UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993, Article 2(b) and (c)). The duties and the role of the OHCHR are delineated under Article 3 of UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993. To start with the OHCHR is directed to operate within the Charter’s framework as well as within the framework of the UDHR and all other UN human rights declarations and instruments. In doing so the OHCHR is directed to operate by taking account of the obligations contained in these human rights systems, national sovereignty and at the same time the need for observing human rights on a universal level (UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993 Article 3(a)). Article 4 goes on to provide that the OHCHR: Shall be the United Nations Official with principal responsibility for United Nations human rights activities under the direction and authority of the Secretary-General; within the framework of the overall competence, authority and decisions of the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council and the Commission on Human Rights (UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993 Article 4). The various duties and the role of the OHCHR are set out in Article 4 of the UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993 and are spearheaded by the duty to “promote and protect the effective enjoyment” by everyone of “all civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights” (UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993 Article 4(a)). Other duties include making recommendations for “improving the promotion and protection of all human rights”, raising awareness of the various bodies within the US system for the protection and promotion of human rights. (UN Resolution 48/141 of 1993 Article 4). The OHCHR is also required to provide “advisory services” via the Centre for Human Rights, to supervise the Centre for Human Rights, to “engage in dialogue with all Governments for ensuring implementation of human rights protection, “to coordinate the human rights promotion and protection activities throughout the” UN’s system and to “rationalize, adapt, strengthen and streamline the United Nations machinery” for efficient and effective human rights’ regime (48/141 of 1993 Article 4). The respective duties and role of the OHCHR requires close coordination with national governments. Implicit in the requirement of impartiality, the OHCHR is required to approach dialogue with national governments with an open mind and with respect for national sovereignty. This requirement is juxtaposed against the duty to promote respect for human rights. The rationale for requiring the OHCHR take this approach to the promoting and protection of human rights is founded on the theory that effective international cohesion requires national government support and cooperation (Lawson and Bertucci 2005, 672). It is commonly felt that outside interference can compromise the promotion of human rights nationally. Guided by this perception the OHCHR was created with the specific intention of avoiding this challenge and by encouraging direct participation of national governments in an impartial and respectful manner (Chapman 1994, 556-568). In taking this approach, the OHCHR has since its creation sent out an invitation to all governments of Member States to “engage in frank dialogue, without conditions or prejudice” (Lawson and Bertucci 2005, 672). In this vein, the OHCHR has traveled to Switzerland, Austria, Bhutan, Burundi, Columbia, Cuba, Denmark, Japan, Finland, Estonia, Cambodia, Germany, Korea, Latvia, Malawi, Nepal, Sweden, Norway, Malawi and Lithuania (Lawson and Bertucci 2005, 672). Pursuant to his duties and defining role, the OHCHR calls upon Member States to subscribe to the various international human rights treaties and discusses ways in which the national government can successfully implement those treaties into national laws (Lawson and Bertucci 2005, 672). In order to carry out this mandate, the OHCHR maintains a presence among Member States by the “running and supporting” at least “53 field presences” (United Nations Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 2008, 4). Ramcharan (2004) explains that the OHCHR essentially spearheads the UN’s system for achieving its human rights’ missions within the Charter’s mission for world peace, justice and social and economic progress (29). Along these lines, the OHCHR conducted what Ramcharan (2004) describes as a “broad-based internal process of consultations” which set up a variety of “duty stations on the development of a modernized mission statement” in 2000 (29). Its 2001 Annual Appeal reflects that mission statement. The OHCHR reported that: The human rights treaties are at the core of the international system for the promotion and protection of human rights (Bayefsky 1999, 3). Guided by this mission statement the OHCHR strives to achieve “the practical implementation” of global standards of human rights (Ramcharan 2004, 29). The OHCHR emphasized that although it is necessary for Member States to implement measures for the protection and recognition of global standards of human rights, it was also important that those right were capable of application in practice (Lawson and Bertucci 2004, 673). In this regard, the OHCHR is required to pay close attention to the reports and investigations conducted by country rapporteurs, working groups and the various treaty bodies. In supervising and organizing these bodies and organizations under the UN human rights systems, the OHCHR is required to be fully aware of progress and obstacles encountered by each of these agencies and their respective activities. The OHCHR is also responsible for providing assistance through encouraging international support and assistance to countries in transition to democracy. In this regard, the OHCHR has conducted a number of seminars and expert round table discussions themed “Benchmarks on Economic, Social and Cultural rights” (UN Follow-up to the World Conference on Human Rights 1998, para 32). Similarly, the OHCHR has organized a number of informational events which engages special rapporteurs and other experts to heighten global awareness of the benefits of permitting and respecting the right to an education and the need for fighting poverty (UN Follow-up to the World Conference on Human Rights 1998, Para 33). The role of the OHCHR is particularly important for providing advice and technical assistance in human rights (Lawson and Bertucci 2004, 677). Resolution 48/141 of 1993, which created the OHCHR specifically called for the office to supervise the Centre for Human Rights. In doing so, the General Assembly imposed upon the OHCHR the duty to provide assistance and services to Member States for supporting and strengthening human rights programs (Lawson and Bertucci 2004, 677). One of the ways that the OHCHR shoulders this responsibility is by partnering with many human rights groups and NGOs. In advancing this partnership, the OHCHR provides a handbook that offers guidance for NGOs and other human rights groups in obtaining training in human rights issues and coordinating information and strategies with the OHCHR (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 2006, 9). The role of the OHCHR is undeniably significant for promoting and protecting universal norms of human rights standards. As the supervisor and organizers of the UN’s human rights systems, the OHCHR is the center piece of its success. In this regard, the office is organized in three main systems. They are the Research and Right to Development branch, Support Services and Activities and Programmes (Ramcharan 2004, 34). Other sub-branches include the Administrative Section, a New York Liaison and numerous field offices (Ramcharan 2004, 34). IV. The Significance of the Role of the OHCHR The specific duties, the criteria for qualifying for the OHCHR, its rank within the UN as an organization speak to the significant role of the office. Collectively the OHCHER’s role can be described as the: …principal UN official with responsibility for United Nations human rights activities under the direction and authority of the Secretary-General (Krasno 2004, 89). In this regard the OHCHR’s role is multifaceted in that it requires participation in each of the UN’s programs including those promoting peace and security, economic and social development and all humanitarian efforts. The OHCHR is also required to promote these programs via the coordination of the divergent human rights standards and perceptions with the work and missions of the UN (Krasno 2004, 89-90). Recognizing the significance of the OHCHR for the centralizing and coordination of the UN’s human rights missions, the UN devised a Plan of Action in Geneva in 2005 calculated to strengthen and empower the OHCHR in its protection mandate (UN The OHCHR Plan of Action 2005). In the Action Plan, the UN identified the difficulties it encountered in previous years in promoting its goals for human rights standards and respect for those standards on an international level. In this regard, the UN highlighted the role of the OHCHR in minimizing those difficulties. This was accomplished by detailing a Plan of Action for the OHCHR in its coordinating role. To start with the UN outlined five action points for the OHCHR. First and foremost, the UN encouraged the OHCHR to expand its geographic reach to achieve greater involvement with Member States. In other words, the significance of the OHCHR’s role is for building and expanding the capacity of human rights (UN The OHCHR Plan of Action 2005, 2). The UN also called for a greater “human rights leadership” role on the part of the OHCHR by taking on more active relations with UN bodies and other actors in human rights promotions. The UN also encouraged the OHCHR to foster closer relations with “civil societies” by commandeering support systems for those who defend human rights (UN The OHCHR Plan of Action 2005, 2). The UN also encourage greater “synergy in the relationship between OHCHR” and other UN human rights agencies and bodies, as well conducting and arranging for inter-governmental consultations and revising “special procedures” (UN The OHCHR Plan of Action 2005, 2). Finally, the UN called for the strengthening of the OHCHR by increasing its staff membership, delegating more initiatives among its staff, improved training and rotating field policies and the implementation of “new administrative procedures” (UN The OHCHR Plan of Action 2005, 3). The UN emphasis on the strengthening and empowering of the OHCHR highlights the significance of its role as a coordinating and centralizing body within the UN’s human rights mission for achieving world peace. In the absence of the OHCHR, the various human rights organizations, bodies and agencies within the UN human rights systems would be forced to function in an ad hoc manner. Ad hoc methods of enhancing and promoting the protection of human rights appear to be far too informal to be effective particularly on a universal level (Harris-Short 2003, 139). Moreover, lessons learned from the ad hoc nature of international criminal tribunals have taught that these methods of promoting a harmonious rule of law internationally are circumvented by inconsistencies, uncertainties and the lack of cohesion (Zachlin 2004, 541-545). These structural weaknesses of ad hoc criminal tribunals gave way to the creation of the international criminal court of justice Zachlin 2004, 541-545). In the same way, the OHCHR as a centralized and coordinating body of the UN’s human rights system ensures greater consistency, more certainty and greater cohesion of human rights standards, each of which are entirely compromised by ad hoc promotion of human rights standards on an international level. Conclusion In taking the approach that respect for human rights is the key to avoiding breaches of the peace and threats to world peace, the UN is focused on obtaining international consensus on what is human rights and respect for those rights. In devising the International Bill of Human Rights and obtaining signatures to those rights by Member States proved to be only a start in achieving those objectives for harmony and respect of universal standards of human rights. Many UN Member States with various domestic policies, as well as political, social and economic setbacks were not immediately amenable to implementing the measures contained in the International Bill of Human Rights. These factors make it difficult for a universal consensus (Kegley 2006, 25). The OHCHR was created to not only coordinate human rights goals and missions within the UN but to achieve a common understanding and appreciation for these rights among its Member States. In this regard the role of the OHCHR is characterized by its coordinating and cooperative functions within the UN’s human rights system and in the international community. It not only brings greater consistency to the UN’s efforts to achieve consensus but brings to the UN a greater measure of credibility and impartiality thereby increasing international confidence in the International Bill of Human Rights. Bibliography Anderlini, S. and Shoemaker, J. (n.d.) “Human Rights.” Inclusive Security, Sustainable Peace: A Toolkit for Advocacy and Action, 28-44. Bayefsky, A. F. (2001) The UN Human Rights Treaty System: Universality at the Crossroads. Kluwer Law International. Bayefsky, A. F. (2003) How to Complain to the UN Human Rights Treaty System. Kluwer Law International. Boulesbaa, A. (1999) The U.N. Convention on Torture and the Prospects for Enforcement. Kluwer Law International. Brysk, A. and Shafir, G.(2007) National Insecurity and Human Rights: Democracies Debate Counterterrorism. University of California Press. Chapman, A. (1994) “Creating the High Commissioner for Human Rights: The Outside Story”. European Journal of International Law Vol. 5(1): 556-568. Chen, A. (2006) “Conclusion: Comparative Reflections on Human Rights in Asia.” Cited in R. Peerenboom and A. Chen (eds). Human Rights in Asia. Routledge Curzon. Claude, R. and Weston, B. (1993) Human Rights in the World Community: Issues and Action. University of Pennsylvania Press. Gaer, F. (October 2005) “The UN Role in Human Rights: An Introduction.” The Jacob Blaustein Institute for the Advancement of Human Rights, Human Rights Discussion Paper, 1-4. Harris-Short, S. (2003) “International Human Rights Law: Imperialist, Inept and Ineffective? Cultural Relativism and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.” Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 25: 130-181. Kegley, C. (2006) “International Peacemaking and Peacekeeping: The Morality of Multilateral Measures.” Ethics and International Affairs Vol. 10(1): 25-45. Krasno, J. The United Nations: Confronting the Challenges of a Global Society. Lynne Reinner Publishers. Lawson, E. and Bertucci, M. (2005) Encyclopedia of Human Rights. Taylor and Francis. Megret, F. and Hoffmann, F. (2003) “The UN as a Human Rights Violator? Some Reflections on the United Nations Changing Human Rights Responsibilities.” Human Rights Quarterly Vol. 25(2), 314-342. Morsink, J. (1999) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting, and Intent. University of Pennsylvania. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (n.d.) “International Law.” http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ (Retrieved November 5, 2009). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2006) “Working with OHCHR: A Handbood for NGOs.” http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/NGOHandbooken.pdf (Retrieved November 5, 2009). Parker, B. (2007) “The State of the UN Human Rights Treaty Body System.” Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights 1-13. Ramcharan, B. (2004) “Human Rights and Human Security.” Disarmament Forum. Vol. 1, 39-47. Risse, T. and Sikkink, K. (2002) “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction.” Cited in Risse-Kappan, R.; Risse, T.; Ropp, S. and Sikkink, K. (eds) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge University Press, 1-38. Smith, R. (2007) Textbook on International Human Rights. Oxford University Press. Taylor and Francis Group. (2002) The Europa World Year Book 2003, Vol. 2. Europa Publications. UN Charter 1945. UN Conference on Human Rights (1993). “Report of the World Conference on Human Rights.” A/Conf.157/24 (Part I), Vienna 14-25 June 1993, 1-51. UN Economic and Social Council. (17 March 2003) “Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and Follow-Up to the World Conference on Human Rights: Effective Functioning of Human Rights Mechanisms.” Commission on Human Rights Fifty-ninth Session. E/CN.4/2003/NGO/225. UN (1998) “Follow-up on the World Conference on Human Rights: Note by the Secretary-General”. Fifty-Third Session, Item 112(d) A/53/372. UN (1993) “Fact Sheet No. 22, Discrimination Against Women: The Convention and the Committee.” http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet22en.pdf (Retrieved November 5, 2009). UN (2005) “The OHCHR Plan of Action: Protection and Empowerment.” Geneva. UN Resolution 4/141 of 1993. UN( 2008) “Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights”. General Assembly Official Records Sixty-third Session Supplement No. 36. Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948. Zacklin, R. (2004) “The Failings of Ad Hoc International Tribunals.” Journal of International Criminal Justice Vol 2(2): 541-545. Zehra, F. and Arat, K.(2006) Human Rights Worldwide: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO Inc. Read More