Black in the Midst of White Mainstream Culture - Case Study Example

A Curse of Color Black American children are only now beginning to reap fruits of their ancestors’ struggles for equality with other colors. They now enjoy many benefits of being an American citizen and are not as looked down upon now compared to years back when members of the generation before them have been segregated from the whites. However, there remain to be traces of that struggle, as many black children are not performing at par with their peers. Such turmoil is expected of this stage of human development across cultures. However, it is an extra challenge for African-American adolescent students due to the developmental task of “integrating their individual personal identity with their racial identity. This integration process is a necessary and inevitable developmental task of growing up Black in the midst of White mainstream culture (Ward, 1995, Cross, et al, 1991) Living with their predecessors’ legacy of being racially discriminated and historically exploited and abused by the White people may have left generational scars in their psyche, that even up to now, being Black in an urban setting remains to be an issue. Many social scientists, politicians, and the media tend to paint a bleak picture for youth living in predominantly Black urban settings in this country (Barbarin, 1993). Poverty, academic failure, early death due to poor health care and violence, drug abuse and addiction, high unemployment rates, teenage pregnancy, gangs, and high crime rates are some of the conditions highlighted to describe the state of the urban underclass in which children must develop and attempt to survive (Dryfoos, 1990; Halpern, 1990; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990; Werner, 1990). Theoretical conceptualizations of factors that influence urban African American adolescents academic achievement have included deficiency models, which focus on factors that may preclude some of these youths form achieving academic success. Fordham & Ogbu, (1986) have asserted that in order for these Black American adolescents to succeed academically, they should adopt more Eurocentric values regarding education. This "acting White" hypothesis has largely assumed a positive correlation between endorsing Eurocentric values and high scholastic achievement. Challenges to this theory have come from a few empirical studies, in which the endorsement of mainstream socialization messages and Eurocentric values were negatively associated with school and general self-esteem (Constantine & Blackmon, 2002; Spencer et al., 2001). Constantine and Blackmon suggested that "acting White" could be detrimental to many urban African American students academic self-efficacy within predominantly Black school settings. For some urban African American adolescents who attempt to act “white”, such behaviors may result in bullying, ridicule, social isolation, reduced peer and social self-esteem, and feelings of community and cultural betrayal (Constantine et al., 1998; Steward et al, 1998; Wilson, Cooke, & Arrington, 1997), In fact, adopting Africentric cultural orientations or endorsing attitudes and behaviors that reflect ethnic or racial pride may better promote the academic and psychological well being of many urban African American students. Another factor responsible in the perceived difficulties of such adolescents with academic achievement may be Institutional racism. (Butler, 2003). This may be described as differential access to educational opportunities based on racial or ethnic group membership (Jones & Carter, 1996). As an example, some urban African American high school students may be prohibited from gaining access to quality education and school facilities because of contemporary structural factors (e.g., racism and low socioeconomic status) that perpetuate historical injustices (e.g., slavery) (Jones, 2000). Allen-Meares (1999) reported that the "conditioned failure model" could represent a form of institutional racism against urban African American students in that these students are often brainwashed into believing that they are inferior to their White peers. The pessimists among us would raise our hands in resignation that historical efforts of the courageous African American who fought for their emancipation are for naught. Going back in time may help clarify events that may explain racism in American education. After the Civil war, blacks emerged triumphant over slavery. However, Southern states adapted new strategies to keep them from being promoted to be equal in status with the whites. Laws on marriage, schools, housing and conduct were passed with the intention of keeping the races segregated. These laws and customs of segregation became known as Jim Crow, named after a minstrel character from the 1830’s (Lasner, 2002). The Jim Crow era lasted from the 1880’s all the way to 1954 when the Supreme Court finally ordered desegregation of public schools. The brave souls predominantly responsible for such a triumph for the Black people were the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) led by W.E.B. DuBois, Ida Wells-Barnett, Henry Moscovitz, Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villiard and William English Walling (Lasner, 2002). The NAACP was a breakaway group from earlier black leaders such as Booker T. Washington, who believed in a “gradual accumulation of equality through education and moral fortitude” (Lasner, 2002). Apparently, the NAACP desired more immediate results so they began fighting for equality through the courts and political advocacy. It also awakened the awareness of black intellectuals with its magazine, The Crisis, edited by DuBois, known for his conceptualization that a veil separated the black race from the white. The blacks, exploited in the segregation of the races again felt a mounting sense of devastation two generations after slavery’s end. The legality of the segregation of blacks and whites in Clarendon County affected millions of school aged children in the segregated states. In 1947, a lawsuit was filed by parents of African American students in that rural county against the school district for the board’s refusal to provide buses to ferry black students to school, although it provided buses for white students. Upon further investigation by the NAACP, it was revealed that black children who could get to school endured dire circumstances, using second hand books and a few supplies. They used broken furniture in cold rooms situated in dilapidated buildings. The ratio of teacher to students was far from ideal, and black teachers earned a much lower salary than what white teachers. Such dreadful state of Clarendon County’s black schools moved NAACP’s chief counsel, Charles Hamilton Houston and his assistant Thurgood Marshall to represent the parents in their constitutional assault on segregated public education (Brown & Valk, 2004). Houston and Marshall documented the inequity between educational opportunities for blacks and whites. Houston’s card was the belief that a broken “separate but equal” policy would eventually dissolve discrimination. He searched for collaborators in his strategy and found a witness in high school student Barbara Johns of Farmville, Virginia. Johns led a student strike against Moton High School which was scandalous in such a quiet town priding itself of the harmony of its race relations, while still adhering to the Jim Crow’s segregated schools policy. Johns was moved by her indignation at the fact that more than 450 black students were crammed into a small eight-room schoolhouse made from tar paper covered buildings while their white counterparts luxuriated in roomy and modern facilities. Johns’ campaign for her co-students to question the segregated educational system resulted in a yearlong strike that helped change the nation. Her suit, compiled with four similar cases from elsewhere in the country, became part of the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education. The Supreme Court decision was in favor of the case known as Brown vs. Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas, is arguably the most significant ruling made by the United States Supreme Court in the twentieth century (Brown and Valk, 2004). The court claimed that racially segregated public schools were discriminatory and therefore unconstitutional. Chief Justice Earl Warren declared, "In the field of public education, the doctrine of separate but equal has no place" (quoted in Lasner, 2002, n.p.). This overturns the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson decision legalizing segregation, an act that upheld white supremacy. Clifton Taulbert, president of the Building Community Institute, grew up witnessing all the changes that affected the black race. Like most African Americans, he is passionate in pursuing education as a ticket to total emancipation from poverty. He shares, “We viewed education as a sledgehammer that would break down the wall of segregation, introduce us as equals, and prepare us to make a living” (Taulbert, as qtd. in Scherer, 2004). Thus, it was the pursuit for quality education of black children that motivated the court struggle to fight for desegregation for seven long years. The court triumph armed the Civil Rights movement to fight discrimination across all aspects of society for the next several decades (Lasner, 2002). Black activists sought to force compliance with the Brown ruling with a goal of extending its impact beyond education. Although the court ruling of desegregation “with all deliberate speed” was pronounced, it triggered massive white resistance across the South. It was an inconvenience to leave their comfort zones, which was well expected behavior from those who enjoyed higher positions in hierarchy. Headstrong white residents established private “academies” still exclusive for white children. Black children as well as adult African American supporters of civil rights were attacked by white mobs (Brown & Valk, 2004). Eventually, desegregation eased its way to spread all over America. Conversely, African American communities embraced the Brown ruling as a sign of the government’s support for the defeat of Jim Crow. It was viewed as a step toward fulfilling America’s liberal democratic creed. As African Americans are inching into their rightful position as equals of whites, racism among the whites seem to still hover, especially in schools. Historical and intergenerational wounds aggravated by more complicated issues that evolve over time do not totally heal. However, it is up to individual dispositions to manage it, with a balance of realistic and idealistic goals. Clifton Taulbert couldn’t have said it more eloquently when he expressed an ideal way to handle such concern which could be adopted by African Americans: “We have resegregation simply because full integration has never happened. We still have to deal with the issue of color. So many unnecessary stereotypes and misguided ideas are tied to color. When you’ve been told for 400 years that people of your color have certain qualities, you find yourself working hard to dispel those myths and lies. At the same time, seeking full acceptance from those who believe these myths and lies may be fruitless. Yet we must continue our pursuit of liberty and justice. Historically, integration rested on white shoulders. Today, because of the many legal and social changes, all of us of all races – students too – more equally share the responsibility to make integration work.” (Taulbert, qtd. in Scherer, 2004, p. 23) References Allen-Meares, P. (1999). African American males: Their status, educational plight, and the possibilities for their future. In L. E. Davis (Ed.). Working with African American males: A guide to practice (pp. 117-128). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Barbarin, O. A. (1993). Coping and resilience: Exploring the inner lives of African American children. Journal of Black Psychology, 19, 478-492. Brown, L. & Valk, A. (2004) “Behind the Veil: Behind Brown”, OAH Magazine of History, January, 2004. Butler, S. K. (2003)”Helping urban African American high school students to excel academically: the roles of school counselors”, High School Journal, Vol. 87, Issue 1 Constantine, M. G., Erickson, C. D., Banks, R. W., & Timherlake, T. L. (1998). Challenges to the career development of urban racial and ethnic minority youth: Implications for vocational intervention. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 26, 83-95. Constantine, M. G., & Blackmon, S. M. (2002). Black adolescents racial socialization experiences: Their relations to home, school, and peer self-esteem. Journal of Black Studies, 32, 322-335. Cross, W., Parham, T., & Helms, J. (1991) The stages of Black identity development: Nigrescence Models. In RL Jones (ed), Black Psychology (pp. 319-337), New York: Harper & Row Dryfoos, J. G. (1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York: Oxford University Press Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students school success: Coping with the "burden of acting White." Urban Review, 18, 176-206. Halpern, R. (1990). Poverty and early childhood parenting: Toward a framework for intervention. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 6-18. Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretical framework and a gardeners tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1212-1215. Jones, J. M., & Carter, R. T. (1996). Racism and White racial identity: Merging realities. In B. P. Bowser & R. G. Hunt, Impacts of racism on White Americans (2nd ed., pp. 1-23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lasner, L.F. (2002) Fighting Jim Crow, Humanities, Vol. 23: 5 Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcame adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425-444. Scherer, M., (2004)“Once upon a time before Brown: A Conversation with Clifton L. Taulbert, Educational Leadership, May 2004 Spencer, M. B., Noll, E., Stoltzfus, J., & Harpalani, V. (2001). Identity and school adjustment: Revisiting the "Acting White" assumption. Educational Psychologist, 36, 21-30. Steward, R. J., Han Ik J., Murray, D., Fitzgerald, W., Neil, D., Fear, F., Hill, M., (1998) “Psychological adjustment and coping styles of urban African American high school students” Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, Vol. 26, Issue 2 Ward, A. J. (1995). Life stress and the development of violence in adolescent males. Presentation at the 103rd American Psychological Association Annual Convention at New York City. Werner, E. E. (1990). Protective factors and individual resilience. In S. J. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood education (pp. 225-256). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Wilson, M. N., Cooke, D. Y., & Arrington, E. G. (1997). African-American adolescents and academic achievement: Family and peer influences. In R. W. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Social and emotional adjustment and family relations in ethnic minority families (pp. 145-155). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Read More