Political Science Questions Evaluation - Essay Example

Political Science Essay Questions of Political Science Essay Questions Chapter Responses The four approaches toknowledge are: scientific approach, authoritarian mode, mystical mode and rationalistic approach. In scientific approach environment is the source of knowledge whereas in authoritarian, those who wield social or political power are the source of knowledge. In mystical mode, obtained is obtained divine authorities such as prophets whereas in rationalistic, knowledge is acquired through a logical thinking process. 2. Deductive explanation derives its argument from known universally applicable law whereas probabilistic explanation supports its argument based on computable likelihoods grounded on ratio formulae. For example, in deductive explanation, if God is good, and murder is bad, then murders are not Godly. A probabilistic explanation example is that if it rains every 3 days a week in June, it is likely that June will have only 10 rainy days. 3. The six assumptions of science are that there is order (e.g. rising and setting of the sun) nature is predictable (e.g. stars being seen on a clear night) natural phenomena have natural causes (e.g. melting of ice is due to rise in temperature) nothing is self-evident (e.g. properties of elements can only be known upon being tested) gathered experience becomes a source of knowledge (e.g. caring for sick for a long time makes one learn how to manage diseases effectively) Knowledge is superior to ignorance (e.g. acquired skills can improve life). 4. The aims of science are to generate knowledge, allow critique, analysis and explanation of claims of a body of knowledge. Science also aims to encourage logical predictions and understanding of phenomena. 5. In prediction, knowledge is sought based on previous trends. Unlike explanation, prediction does not delve into systematic analysis of precedent factors that affect the process of body of knowledge. That way, it is reverse process of explanation. 6. In Verstehen tradition claims that the understanding of social sciences must be analyzed through the prism of human behavior subjectively. On the other hand, predictive understanding argues that logical conclusions can be drawn objectively without approach social study subjectively. 7. In order for knowledge in general and scientific methodology to be intersubjective, there has to be transmissibility between the two approaches used in gaining knowledge. That is to mean that either can inform the other owing to an assumption that their methodology remains irreproachable, e.g. both being self-critical and highly analytical so that their conclusions are reliable. 8. What the authors term “scientific revolution” is a paradigm that transforms developments abruptly rather than gradually, ideas that related to normal science. Such paradigm transforms the existing body of knowledge. 9. Kuhn’s descriptive view of science is that a rival paradigm that introduces transformation is the dominant one whereas Popper’s prescriptive theory suggests that all paradigms should be acceptable as equal without assigning them superiority statuses. 10. The topic for social research shall be “Drinking Habits of College Students.” Problem: Drinking in colleges Hypothesis: people drink a lot in college than in later life Research Design: Assessing drinking habits of out of college population versus their drinking habits while they were in college Measurement: Males and Female of between 25 years to 40 years Data Collection: Filling in of questionnaires by the selected out-of-college population Data analysis: shall involve comparisons on frequency of drinking versus amount of alcohol drank while in college and while out of college Generalizations: the result obtained will be a fair representation of the whole population of people who passed through college Chapter 2 1. The four functions of concepts are: Enabling communication, e.g. passing an idea that was not known Introduce a point of view, e.g. reason behind subscribing to a particular opinion For classification and generalization, e.g. they help in grouping related and different arguments based on established and attributable trends Serve as part of theories, e.g. they help in making explanations and predictions 2. Conceptual definitions are those whose major aim is to shed more light on relative meanings as defined by scholars for the purposes of communication, e.g. success is a product of hard work. On the other hand, operational definitions are those that are arrived at through experimentation that follows a particular path of actions to arrive at conclusions, e.g. hydrogen is a gas that burns with a “pop” sound. 3. Primitive terms are those terms whose meanings have a general agreeability especially owing to the fact that their meanings are supported by illustrations, e.g. height is the distance from the ground to the top, for instance the height of a tree. On the other hand, derived terms are those that are defined by using primitive terms, e.g., momentum is the product of force and velocity. 4. In order for conceptual definitions to enhance communication, they must possess the following key attributes Be able to offer a comprehensive definition of that which is being defined Be able to offer explanation that are conclusive and not ambiguous Be stated in the affirmative Demonstrate clarity in their definitive terms 5. The social science concept selected is group development. It is argued that a stable group is one that has passed through the process of forming, storming, norming and performing. At forming stage, there is optimism and excitement. At storming stage, differences and sets backs become apparent leading to dissatisfaction. At norming stage, the group accepts its limitations, develop common goals and cope with one another. At performance stage, there is understanding, outstanding leadership and notable performance. 6. The congruence problems is that when making transition from conceptual level to empirical observation level, the very nature of conceptual and empirical definition poses a problem where they cannot agree. For instance, conceptual definitions do not have to be operationally defined or observed, thus a problem when merging the two approaches to seeking definitions. 7. What is meant by theoretical import is that scientific concepts should employ an interdisciplinary approach where dominant theories behind related claims are referred to for meanings. For example, concepts from Darwin’s theory of human evolution can be used to investigate evolution in plant species. 8. The common misconceptions regarding theories are that they are unrealistic, provides no basis for practical decision-making and that they lack empiricism. Such misconceptions arise when people attempt to assess on the same scale two completely different approaches to knowledge acquisition. Another misconception is that since many theories have not been proved, all emerging theories are just as good as dead. 9. The four levels of theory are ad-hoc classification systems, taxonomies, conceptual frameworks and theoretical systems. Ad-hoc classificatory systems have to do with consolidation of empirical observations while taxonomies allow classification based on notable relationships. On the other hand, conceptual frameworks have to do with arguments that categorize concepts while theoretical system is a combination of the above in a manner that demonstrates congruency in their principles. 10. The use of models in social science research serves to provide a basis of understanding based on utilization of related approach on the actual concept. Such an approach in social science and research has to draw on similarities and use models as a trials platform for making probable outcomes through predictions. Chapter 3 1. A scientific statement about any difficulty whose solution is sought is a research problem. A variable is any feature, factor or element that can change when subjected to certain conditions. Relation is the connection between features, factors, or elements. A hypothesis is a temporary answer to a research problem that can be proved or disproved upon sufficient investigation. 2. The main entity under analysis in any study is the unit of analysis. Precisely, it is the “who” or “what” that forms the subject of a study. Social science, for instance, can have units of analysis such as individuals or groups. 3. Examples of social science empirical problems include endemic urban poverty and persistent authoritarian regimes. 4. Ecological fallacy is the deduction of an individual’s qualities from the qualities of the larger group of which the individual is a member. Individualist fallacy, on the other hand, is the deduction of the characteristics of a group based on the characteristics of an individual member of the group. 5. Independent variables are those values that are changeable in an experiment. Dependent variables result from the independent variables. For instance, when studying the effect of light intensity on moth attraction, the intensity is the independent variable as it is changeable whereas the distance from the light source is the dependent variable. 6. A spurious relationship is relationship mathematical in nature whereby a connection can be inferred from two variables that have no causal link either because the two coincide or a third factor is identified which establishes the connection between the two. For instance, where B is observed whenever A is present, it can be said that A causes B. On the other hand, where A and B are observed whenever C is present, it can be concluded that C causes A and B. Control variables specify or elaborate the perceived connection in a spurious relationship. The control variables are introduced based on the researcher’s experience, a conceptual framework or a hypothesis. 7. Covariation means that whenever two variables relate, one variable should change as the other variable changes. Covariation is crucial in statistical expression. It is one of the multivariate techniques frequently used in social science. 8. A hypothesis is a temporary answer to a research problem that can be proved or disproved upon sufficient investigation. Hypotheses are clear and precise. For example, “worker motivation increases worker performance.” Hypotheses are testable. For example, “prisoner rehabilitation lowers recidivism rates.” Hypotheses state the relation between variables. For example, “Tall people have long hands.” Hypotheses are have limited scopes. For example, “Chocolate can cause pimples.” 9. Problems arise in hypotheses due to several factors. A hypothesis that tries to prove something that does not exist by looking for a non-existent proof. For instance, “unicorns are real because no evidence disputes this.” A hypothesis that provides subtexts that are supernatural for phenomena that are otherwise mundane. For instance, “gravity is a function of space and time because God so ordained.” 10. Information sources for research problems in social science include Surveys and opinion polls Newspaper articles written about the problem at the time Government agency records Interviews Internet communications Conference proceedings Radio and television archives Artifacts and photographs Chapter 4 1. Milgram’s investigation sought to discover the extent to which ordinary persons could go in obeying orders from those in authority even if the orders were those of killing. The investigation involved three persons: learner, teacher and experimenter. The teacher had to punish the learner for every wrong answer based on orders from the experimenter. The investigation concluded that ordinary people are inclined to follow orders from persons in authority. It is unethical to conduct an investigation that subjects participants to stress as Milgram’s shocks did to participants. 2. Ethical issues in Reiss’ study Use of force where other enforcement means are available Proactive and reactive police actions Racial segregation on the application of force by police 3. The American Council of Education raised the following issues. Firstly, the issue of maintaining challenging expectations where students with learning disabilities are involved to attain the desired outcomes in ways that do not harm the students’ dignity. Secondly, the maintenance of a higher degree of professional competence while exercising good judgment to benefit students. Thirdly, not engaging in any forms of practice that are injurious to students 4. Social science research has an array of ethical dilemmas today. First is the need to maintain information confidentiality because there are certain sensitive data that should not go into the public realm. The dilemma sets in because social science research always prides in airing findings. The other dilemma is that of meeting professional and legal standards for carrying out research with on humans. It becomes difficult to explore all angles of research due to professional and legal implications. 5. Sources of ethical problems arise from the methods used in social science research. Some of the methods pose the risks of harm to participants, a situation quite unethical. For instance, Milgram’s experiment harmed participants despite the findings being critical. 6. Even obviously beneficial research has associated costs: it will consume the researcher and the participant’s time and money. It is also possible for research to inflict serious harm on participants. These situations necessitate the use of the utilitarian model whereby benefits should exceed the costs/harm to justify the research. 7. Informed consent refers to the mechanisms of getting permission from research participants before making any research intervention on them. Obtaining informed consent from the research participants is central to the ethical considerations in social science research. The four elements are: The nature of the procedure or decision Reasonable alternatives to the research intervention The benefits and risks relevant to each alternative Assessment of participant understanding 8. The dimensions of privacy are: Privacy of the individual Privacy of individual behavior Privacy of individual communications Privacy of individual data Privacy of individual experience 9. Anonymity and confidentiality are two important components of the ethical considerations in social science research. The first means of achieving this is to use participant pseudonyms. Moreover, researchers change participants’ characteristics in the reports such as occupation and gender. 10. A professional code of ethics is adopted by a given profession to regulate the profession. It guides professionals on the ethical standards and how these standards can be achieved. A code of ethics helps professionals understand why particular actions are unacceptable in their respective professions and makes them perform better. Reference Somekh, B., and Lewin, C. (2004). Research Methods in the Social Sciences. New York: SAGE Publications Ltd. Read More