ADHD and Crime - Assignment Example

?Running head: ADHD AND CRIME ADHD and Crime 19 July How Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and crime are related is a complex question. Recent advances in criminology research clearly associate ADHD with the development of deviant/ criminal behaviors later in life. This paper supports a belief that ADHD does have a potential to result in crime/ deviance in adolescence and adulthood. Studies which do not support this assumption are discussed. The predictive validity of ADHD measures in the analysis of crime and deviance is assessed. Implications for practice and future research are provided. Keywords: ADHD, crime, deviance, adolescence, adulthood. Discuss ADD/ADHD and write belief as to whether it contributes to criminal behavior How Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is related to crime and deviance is a difficult question. Much has been written and said about the role of psychosocial, emotional, and neurological factors in the development of deviant behaviors during adulthood. The current state of research supports an explicit link between ADHD during childhood and criminal reactions later in life. Few studies do not support an assumption that ADHD does have an effect on criminal behaviors. It should be noted, that ADHD and other neurological/ emotional factors are believed to be valid predictors of crime and deviance during adulthood. However, future research must focus on the development of more specific measures of ADHD and their relevance for the study of crime and deviance. ADHD and its separate elements, including hyperactivity and attention deficit, have a potential to become fundamental ingredients of the future theories of crime and deviance. Neurological Factors of Crime How neurological factors affect crime and deviance has long been a matter of professional concern. Factors and motives behind criminal behaviors are among the most popular objects of criminology research. Researchers and practicing criminologists seek a single, universal explanation of crime and deviance. Among other factors responsible for deviance and crime, the role of neurology, cognition, and emotions is difficult to overestimate. According to Brower and Price (2001), neurological dysfunction does play a role in how humans choose to behave: more specifically, abnormal frontal lobe function is significantly correlated with violence and crime. This is mainly because individuals with such abnormalities demonstrate poor self-control and are excessively aggressive (Brower & Price, 2001). “Subjects with both traumatic and neurodegenerative disorders primarily involving the prefrontal cortex display increased rates of aggressive and antisocial behavior compared with subjects who have no, or non-frontal brain injury” (Brower & Price, 2001, p.724). Aggressive individuals and antisocial subjects are frequently associated with prefrontal network dysfunction; the latter is one of the most frequent and relevant factors of recurrent aggression, which can cause violent behaviors (Brower & Price, 2001). Before Brower and Price (2001), Cohen et al (1999) also investigated the link between neuropsychological factors and domestic violence. Despite the paucity of research, neurological and neuropsychological factors can provide a potentially valuable explanation to most criminal and deviant behaviors in adults. Statistically, neuropsychological disorders predict violence and aggressiveness in every fifth incarcerated batterer (Cohen et al, 1999). Men incarcerated for violence, and especially domestic violence, demonstrate unprecedented rates and seriousness of neurological brain symptoms (Cohen et al, 1999). All these findings seem to have little to do with the topic of the present study. Yet, this is an erroneous conclusion. In reality, that neurological and neuropsychological factors affect and predict the development of criminal and deviant behaviors has far-reaching implications for the study of ADHD and crime. These results set the stage for the analysis of the ADHD-crime relationship and suggest that, among other neurological and cognitive disorders, ADHD and its separate elements (hyperactivity, inattentiveness, or both) could cause heavy impacts on individual crime-deviance choices. However, before the effects of ADHD on crime are analyzed, a clearer picture of what ADHD and how it works has to be presented. A better understanding of ADHD and its health impacts is an essential prerequisite for explaining and understanding the relationship between crime, deviance, and ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Despite a wealth of literature, the symptoms and effects of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are poorly understood. ADHD is considered one of the most complicated manifestations of neurological and neuropsychological dysfunctions. Misdiagnosed, it can cause profound effects on human behaviors and well-being. Based on the current knowledge of medicine, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) comes in three different forms: predominantly hyperactive type, predominantly inattentive type, and combined type (Gordon & Moore, 2005). ADHD usually manifests through a number of symptoms, including inattentiveness, impulsivity and hyperactivity, as well as behavioral, cognitive, and emotional deficits (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Based on DSM-IV, ADHD consists of at least six different symptoms of hyperactivity and six different symptoms of inattention (Gordon & Moore, 2005). ADHD can be diagnosed, if these symptoms “persist for more than six months and start before the age of seven years” (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Added to this, children suspected of having ADHD must demonstrate impairments in at least two other domains, for example in school and at home. It goes without saying that all these symptoms should not be related to any other disease (Gordon & Moore, 2005). The prevalence of ADHD varies by race and gender, and boys more than girls are susceptible to the risks of ADHD than girls (Gordon & Moore, 2005). This is mainly because boys tend to display externalizing behaviors in response to aggressive environmental factors: simply put, boys are more likely to act aggressively when faced with challenging life situations (Gordon & Moore, 2005). By contrast, girls would prefer to internalize their reactions and emotions (Gordon & Moore, 2005). That the prevalence of ADHD varies by race and gender does not mean that children of non-white races and girls are entirely secured from the risks of developing ADHD. Rather, minority children with the symptoms of ADHD are either under-diagnosed or under-researched; for this reason, they have their emotional, cognitive, and neuropsychological needs unmet (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Minority children are rarely prescribed medications and procedures needed to cope with their symptom early in life (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Is it possible that the lack of medical attention to minority children with ADHD later reflects in disproportionately high rates of incarceration among minority individuals? This question has yet to be answered. In the meantime, ADHD remains one of the most challenging but also most interesting aspects of crime and deviance research. A multitude of factors is responsible for the development of ADHD in children. These may range from family dysfunction to poverty, inappropriate living conditions, and even maternal history of psychiatric disorders (Gordon & Moore, 2005). The mere fact of absence or presence of ADHD in children can predict the development of other behaviors, including aggressiveness and anger, sadness, and anxiety (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Contemporary researchers cannot find any agreement on whether or not ADHD and related behaviors, like stealing, fighting, threatening, disobedience and destructiveness, and temper tantrums should be treated as one single disorder (Farrington, Loeber & Kammen, 1990). However, it is clear that ADHD precipitates the development of aggressive and violent behaviors, which can readily lead to crime and deviance. These behavioral categories, coupled with cognitive and emotional impairments, create conditions that foster and favor crime and deviance. The relationship between ADHD and criminal behaviors is very complicated. The question of ADHD effects on crime and deviance is mostly unresolved. The current state of research does not provide a single, universal answer to this question but has far-reaching implications for the future knowledge of crime and deviance and practical methods of dealing with it. ADHD and Crime: A Complex Link That ADHD predicts criminal and deviant behaviors has been abundantly documented. Recent advances in ADHD research have been revolving around two main themes: the effects of ADHD on (1) substance abuse and (2) crime (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Apart from the fact that individuals with ADHD are at higher risks of developing substance abuse behaviors, they are also extremely susceptible to the risks of crime (Gordon & Moore, 2005). The higher the severity of ADHD symptoms in children the more likely they are to become substance abusers (Gordon & Moore, 2005). More importantly, hyperactivity and impulsivity which develop as a result and together with ADHD increase the likelihood of criminal behaviors in adolescents and adults (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Apparently, emotional and cognitive problems during childhood cause long-term impacts on individuals, which persist through adolescence and adults. Apparently, the roots of many crimes can be readily traced to conduct problems that result from inattention, impulsivity, and inattention during childhood. Many adolescent and adult inmates demonstrate at least one significant symptom of ADHD, which is also suggestive of a direct relationship between ADHD and crime. Compared to the general population, the prevalence and incidence of ADHD in incarcerated youth is much higher and reaches an unprecedented 20% (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Therefore, ADHD can predict higher rates of juvenile offending (Gordon & Moore, 2005). The situation is no better with female offenders: 17.5% of German incarcerated women have been diagnosed with ADHD (Rosler et al, 2009). The main trends of ADHD in prison environments mirror those among the common population: incarcerated women display lower frequency of ADHD compared with male inmates (Rosler et al, 2009). It is interesting to note that women diagnosed with ADHD are much younger than those without ADHD, when they are imprisoned and convicted the first time (Rosler et al, 2009). Women with ADHD also face longer terms of incarceration, compared with female inmates without ADHD (Rosler et al, 2009). The presence of ADHD in incarcerated women also predicts the presence of other, comorbid conditions, including depression and anxiety (Rosler et al, 2009). All these findings are also supported by Matsumoto and Imamura (2007), who support a belief that ADHD is positively associated with dissociative tendencies later in life. ADHD together with the history of family abuse may be an important risk factor for criminality in adolescence and adulthood (Matsumoto & Imamura, 2007). This is probably why Matsumoto and Imamura (2007) suggest that forensic practices must focus on addressing ADHD symptoms in incarcerated individuals, to reduce the risks of recidivism. Unfortunately, nothing has been done to address ADHD concerns in prison environments, and individuals with ADHD continue committing dozens and even thousands of crimes. Dalteg and Levander (1998) found that of 75 advanced juvenile delinquents, 68% had ADHD and, between ages 6 and 30, had been convicted for a total of 12,000 (!) crimes. Dalteg and Levander (1998) claim that “ADHD appears to be related to crime volume and versatility (a lifetime increase in crimes of 250%), rather than to type of crime (no increase in crimes of violence)” (p.39). These findings do not support a belief that impulsivity and hyperactivity are directly linked to the risks of violence and aggressiveness in adolescents and adults (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Nonetheless, it is clear that the link between ADHD does exist and profoundly alters the situation with crime and incarcerations. Dalteg, Lindgren and Levander (1999) claim that hyperactivity is directly associated with drug abuse and early antisocial behaviors, young age when convicted for the first time, more discipline problems, and cumulated crimes. Unnever, Cullen and Pratt (2003) explain the relationship between ADHD and crime by the lack of effective self-control and failure to control children’s behaviors and decisions by parents. To a large extent, ADHD has a predictive validity for measuring the probability of antisocial outcomes as a result of ADHD (McMahon et al, 2010). ADHD and Crime: Not Everyone Agrees The current state of knowledge about ADHD and crime is not without controversy. Not all researchers agree with the point that ADHD predicts crime and deviance in women and men. Mordre et al (2011) did find a direct link between cognitive and psychiatric disorders and the risks of crime: crime rates among former child psychiatric patients were twice as high as those among the common population. Hyperactivity combined with conduct disorders during childhood were found to be directly related to delinquency in adolescence and adulthood (Mordre et al, 2011). Criminality was also associated with family problems during childhood (Mordre et al, 2011). However, Mordre et al (2011) found that ADHD in the absence of conduct disorders did not affect crime rates. Consequentially, Mordre et al (2011) concluded that there could not be any association between criminality and hyperkinetic symptoms. ADHD, Crime, and Deviance: Conclusion and Implications That the prevailing majority of primary and secondary studies confirm the importance of ADHD factors in the analysis of criminality confirms the validity of the ADHD-crime relationship. Dozens of studies explored the role of ADHD during childhood in the development of antisocial outcomes, including crimтe and deviance, later in life. However, that some researchers do not agree with the belief in ADHD and its effects on crime means that the current knowledge of the ADHD-crime relationship is not perfect. On the one hand, ADHD exemplifies an important predictor of crime and delinquency in adolescence and adulthood. On the other hand, no single theory was ever developed to explain the effects of hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention on criminal behaviors. These findings have far-reaching implications for the study of crime and deviance. First, timely diagnosis and treatment ADHD in children can become an effective measure of reducing the risks of crime and deviance among adolescents and adults. This is particularly the case of minority children: many of them are inappropriately diagnosed and do not obtain relevant ADHD treatment (Gordon & Moore, 2005). Possibly, ADHD treatment for minority children could reduce the burden of disproportionate incarceration among minority adolescents and adults. Second, many crimes could be traced to childhood problems and cognitive/ emotional impairments in children. Third, given the high prevalence of ADHD among incarcerated women and men, new forensic procedures could help inmates to cope with the disorder and, consequentially, reduce the risks of recidivism (Matsumoto & Imamura, 2007). In the meantime, researchers in criminology and forensic science must focus on the development of new theoretical frameworks, which will help to explain the link between ADHD and crime and propose new, effective policy solutions. References Brower, M.C. & Price, B.H. (2001). Neuropsychiatry of frontal lobe dysfunction in violent and criminal behavior: A critical review. Journal of Neurology and Neurosurgical Psychiatry, 71, 720-726. Cohen, R.A., Rosenbaum, A., Kane, R.L., Warnken, W.J. & Benjamin, S. (1999). Neuropsychological correlates of domestic violence. Violence and Victims, 14(4), 397-412. Dalteg, A. & Levander, S. (1998). Twelve thousand crimes by 75 boys: a 20-year follow-up study of childhood hyperactivity. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 9(1), 39-57. Dalteg, A., Lindgren, M. & Levander, S. (1999). Retrospectively rated ADHD is linked to specific personality characteristics and deviant alcohol reactions. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 10(3), 623-634. Farrington, D.P., Loeber, R. & Kammen, W.B. (1990). Long-term criminal outcomes of hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention deficit and conduct problems in childhood. In Lee N. Robins, Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood, CUP Archive, 62-74. Gordon, J.A. & Moore, P.M. (2005). ADHD among incarcerated youth: An investigation on the congruency with ADHD prevalence and correlates among the general population. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(1), 87-99. Matsumoto, T. & Imamura, F. (2007). Association between childhood attention-deficit- hyperactivity symptoms and adulthood dissociation in male inmates: Preliminary report. Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 61, 444-446. McMahon, R.J., Witkiewitz, K. & Kotler, J.S. (2010). Predictive validity of callous- unemotional traits measured in early adolescence with respect to multiple antisocial outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119(4), 752-763. Mordre, M., Groholt, B., Kjelsberg, E., Sandstad, B. & Myhre, A.M. (2011). The impact of ADHD and conduct disorder in childhood on adult delinquency: A 30 years follow-up study using official crime records. BMC Psychiatry, 11(57), 1-10. Rosler, M., Retz, W., Yaqoobi, K., Burg, E. & Retz-Junginger, P. (2009). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in female offenders: prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial implications. European Archives in Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 259, 98-105. Unnever, J.D., Cullen, F.T. & Pratt, T.C. (2003). Parental management, ADHD, and delinquent involvement: Reassessing Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory. Justice Quarterly, 20(3), 471-500. Read More