Discourse Analysis - Essay Example

Discourse Analysis Name Course Tutor Date Introduction The definitions of discourse have changed ever since the term was introduced into modern science. The meanings have been many and diverse. The analysis of this paper then demands that we make a clear definition on which one has been applied in the article. The term traces its origin from Latin whose translation means conversation or simply speech. The meaning has changed since then to cover complete human life. Discourse analysis is an exercise in the field of linguistics. The simple definition of linguistics is the study of language. The linguists who are the professional in linguistics explore how various stylistics devices of language relate in order to achieve communication. This paper undertakes a discourse analysis of attitude. It is the best method as it attitude is behavioral and can qualify to be in the language-based discipline (Akmajian, & Demers 2008. P. 37). Scholars of language have also referred to discourse analysis as text-linguistics when making an analysis of written information for instance the one analyzed in this paper. On the other hand, discourse analysis has been reserved to define the analysis of spoken discourse that essentially means analysis of acts of communication. The difference between the two definitions is however, a thin line that sometimes it is overshadowed. Discourse analysis is complex when bringing out the exact definition as held by Silva (Carter 1993. P.73). He explains that the complexity is in the confusion of areas where discourse analysis is applied. Varied academicians utilize discourse analysis in the description of puzzling variety of apprehensive disciplines. The diversity of discourse analysis makes it difficult for it to be defined. However, this is where its strength lies as it offers scholars to explore it further. According to Reed, this means that the demise of discourse analysis is not just near yet. D.F. Watson offers the simplest definition of discourse analysis. His definition is also broad but includes other related disciplines. Watson’s definition can be applied to a wide range of subjects (Cook 1990. P.53). He defines discourse analysis as, “a study and interpretation of spoken and written communication.” The discussion is open and more scholars offer a more detailed definition for instance George Guthrie who defines it as a course of exploration through which people examine the form and function of all the parts and levels of a written discourse. This is with the intention to get full comprehension of the discourse as whole. Guthrie asserts that in order for any researcher to understand his angle of definition of discourse analysis, one must put into consideration the basic doctrines, sub-categories, and the rank of discourse and functions involved in the process of discourse analysis. Clarity of the definition requires the understanding of what analysts consider constitutes discourse. What entails discourse has to be elaborated whether it is the volumes history or a simple one on one exchange between a teacher and a student. The concern of discourse with larger units of language makes it to stand out from other disciplines of language that could otherwise create confusion. Crystal, a scholar of language affirms that scholars (Crystal 1992) cannot agree upon the argument on whether the term discourse denotes analysis of speech or text. P.43).In his definition he refers to discourse as a continuous elongation of language and not a sentence and especially a spoken one. According to him, it contains a logical whole such as a sermon, dispute, narrative or a joke. Dakowska adds that in the entire process the ability to know the differences in the discourses is in itself an indicator of unity of communicative intentions where each element is important. In her words, the word text implies a product of linguistics while discourse is the whole dynamics of the processes (Dakowska 2001. P. 81). Cook comes in to claim that even novels short stories and other short literature publications such as plays have equal rights to be counted as discourses (Cook 1990. P.7). Guthrie proposes seven qualities that any piece of literature should fulfil to merit as a discourse (Guthrie, George & Scott 1998. p.37).They are; a) Cohesion- This represents the grammatical interrelationship within the various parts of a sentence that are important in interpretation b) Intentionality- To her this means that the message conveyed in the text must be deliberate and made with a purpose c) Informativeness- the work must carry new information for it to qualify as a discourse d) Coherence- The arrangement of words in statements must be orderly in order to make sense e) Situationality- The circumstances under which statements are delivered are very crucial f) Intertextuality- the reference to the world and interpreter’s environment have to be put in mind g) Acceptability- The audience or the people the message targets have to approve it Other scholars among them Renkema have come out state that not all of Beaugrande’s qualifications can apply today (Renkema 2004.p. 49). Some of them remain valid but only applicable in specific research methodologies. The difficulty brought by the indifference in the definition of a discourse, it becomes reasonable to illustrate the features that are common to most scholars of linguistics. This paper presents a discourse analysis of the ten violent seconds as narrated by Joe Bennet. He uses this mode to present his views on how he witnessed the earthquake. Analysis of the ten violent seconds of terror-Attitude Joe Bennet outlines how he witnessed the damage caused by an earthquake on Lyttelton in the article, ten violent seconds of terror. Joe describes the earthquake as being violent yet it took the shortest time possible that is ten seconds only. The start of the earthquake surprises him so much. Everything is thrown into disarray. The house is broken as Joe sees things being thrown through the windows at a very fast pace that he compares to a rabbit in the jaws of a dog. The goats are also astonished because their bleating is way over the noise of the earthquake. The narrator heaves after about fifteen seconds of terror and starts to recollect himself as he assesses the aftermath. The sight of utensils in the kitchen lives the narrator to find a way to cope with what he saw. As if what he saw in the kitchen was not enough, the flowing boulders, the crashed vegetation, and the speed at which the debris is cascading sends chills in his spine. Joe tries to find solace in his effort to release stress by asking from different groups of people if they need his assistance. It is human character that when people are in problems such as the earthquake calamity that has just struck would prefer to engage in conversations. This helps them to reduce stress as they feel the problem is shared in the process it gets lighter to bear. To proof that there are more surprises in the offing for Joe, he wonders why a boulder can stop on the road when there is nothing to stop it. He finds this when he is in the process of looking for Blue that had just disappeared. The crumbling of the Volcano restaurant has caused impediments on the movements along London streets. They are cordoned off following the collapse of the building. He gets nostalgic moments of how he used to enjoy meals and snacks in the restaurant are felt when he observes what has happened to the restaurant. When he goes back home what he has seen can never be forgotten by anyone and especially that the time taken to cause the damages was merely ten seconds. The term attitude is used to imply a psychological evaluation of people, events, objects, situation, and ideas from either a negative perspective or a positive one. The psychological response influences people’s actions and behaviour. Various scholars give various definition of attitude in their understanding. Their definition however depends on the discipline of professionalism they stem from. Jung for instance defines attitude as the preparedness of the psyche to react or act in a particular manner (Jung 1971. p. 63). Eagly and Chaiken on the other hand define attitude as the psychological propensity that is expressed by assessing a certain entity with some level of either favour or disfavour. Most of the scholars give a general definition of attitude as a discrete of emotions in relation to an object, an event or a situation. It is considered a measure of favourability. When other factors are held constant, the evaluation of attitude runs in a continuum of negativity through to positivity including their extreme ends. Factors that can alter this definition include the occurrence of conflict when people have formed opinions over others, objects or situations (Crystal 1995. P. 63). Ambivalence can also lead to an individual holding the two extremes of positivity and negativity of attitude. Joe’s presentation of his experience extensively covers the aspects of interpersonal nature of discourse. From his evaluation, we would borrow ideas of various scholars including Bazerman and Dudley-Evans among many more (Crystal1995. P.83).The works of these scholars serve to help us in assessing meaning that is categorical to lexical choices. Joe’s article complements the knowledge that already exists as pertains to discourse analysis of attitude. He puts into consideration the dynamic interplay of resources that can be assessed to aid in the restructuring of prosodies that are of value in all the areas of the discourse. His expressions of interpersonal meaning appear in a way that describes them to be spread, smear, or sprawl that and accumulative. They echo each other in order to build a strong value that spreads to the entire text. The destruction that he is scared of in the kitchen seems better when he sees the crumbled volcano restaurant. Considerations can be made when the trends of attitude match with various types of arguments. He meets a friend next to the restaurant they used to take beer together. They are both perplexed. We would analyse expressions of attitude by subdividing it into three parts. In doing this, we assess the Appraisal theory of Martin and Rose (Martin & Rose 2003. P. 17). Attitude can be reflected through Appreciation, Judgment, and Affect. Inscribed attitude can feed a specific message into the observer either as positive or negative and that the encoded message is measurable. Joe refers to the earthquake as violent. Those expressing Affect may show feelings or emotions. If Appreciation is encoded then the degree at which they value things is revealed. Terms such as good or bad could be used in this case. Judgment entails appraising people, events, or objects. The terms of behaviour such as ethical or unethical apply here. It borrows the concepts of Appraisal theory when grading the meanings represented by the three forms of expression. Attitude is determined by factors that include the observer’s protection, the need for knowledge and the desire to contribute. Joe moves on in search of Blue, his dog after going into the kitchen to assess the damage. This can be used in examining the mechanism via which the prosodies function. Joe acts in a way that shows how prosodies radiate from actions of explicit attitude (Crystal1995.p. 112). This happens through various stages. The first is the prosodies in the clause. This level of radiation examines that values spread within grammatical relationships. The second is prosodies across a clause-complex. This gives a proposition in the contexts of textually and not grammar. It gives positive value of the person encoding the message. The prosodies in longer phrases of discourse evaluate considerations of values radiating beyond the clause complex. This is usually initiated by the inscribed Appreciation. The damage caused by the earthquake in ten seconds is too much. The volcano restaurant has crumbled, the boulders cascade down the road, his kitchenware is smashed and the scare it has caused in people. The analysis of genre Joe Bennet titles his article, ten violent seconds of terror. The article is reported in the first person. This proves to the reader that actually the author witnessed the event. This is attitudinal. Joe tries to focus on the textual and interpersonal meanings that are decoded in this aspect of attitude. He narrates in a manner that shows he is in touch with what is happening. This is because it comprises of multiple actions at the same time. This includes visuals, speech, body language, space, gaze, and facial expressions. We would engage on a mission to identify the aspects of speech and body language (Renkema 2004. P. 43). This brings to the fore how body language works in conjunction with speech in the process. The actions and movements are the best sites for the analysis of how body language accompanies the spoken discourse. It brings together different modes including technology and artefacts. The movement of the body parts is therefore inevitable because it combines various genres of language are interacted. This includes discussions, protocols, explanations, arguments and casual conversations among others. Joe looks at the old man and woman and in the process; it helps in the identification, in the integration of entities or personalities and several other semiotic systems throughout the discourse. In this case, the body language is essential when drawing the attention of people, places and even things in a particular context. Furthermore, the body language aids in the constant shifts in the movements of the whole body that changes meta-functional meanings. This covers the expression of values and feelings that include affect, judgment, and appreciation. By using the appraisal theory, appraisal is divided into three subdivisions of engagement, attitude, and graduation. This level lets attitude narrow down to judgment, appreciation, and affect. Attitudinal meaning comes both in categorical and quantitative approaches. This addresses the similarities and differences in the discourse of respective speakers. Expression of attitude can also imply dissatisfaction. There is no explicit negative affect that is expressed some of his forms of expressing frustrations. It is correct to pass judgment that the caller was either frustrated or dissatisfied. Joe says that there was nothing to stop the boulder from cascading downwards. Problems of nature are sometimes expressed when there is lack of any explicit expressions of negative attitude from the speaker. Appraisal of the ten violent seconds Rose and Martin’s theory of appraisal gives a better angle of understanding inscribed attitude in this article of the ten violent seconds. The distinction is made between inscribed attitude and invoked attitude. The former is attitude that expressed either directly or explicitly while the latter is concerned with expression of attitude either indirectly or implicitly. Identification of inscribed attitude is done basing on polarity and gradability (Martin & Rose 2003. P. 37). Inscribed attitude directs its focus on expressions that show a positive or negative value whose strength can be attuned up and down by measure. Grading which is a system of measuring the degree of attitude can be done through pre-modification. This method only serves to fine tune attitudinal meaning to highlight a restricted context and in the process confining the level of amplification of attitude. Grading can also be done by infusion in addition to repletion and listing. Aspects of appreciation Attitude cuts across various disciplines but it is mainly a baby of psychology since it is behavioral in nature. Psychologically, it has three components that are abbreviated as ABC. A is the affective component that is also referred to as the emotional aspect. This part influences behaviour in people to feel good, ambivalent or bad. B is the second component and is the responsible for the typical behavioral tendency of individuals. C, which is the last component, deals with the cognitive assessment and beliefs of people. This is usually based on what the observer learnt from experiences either through observation or through learning. In determining the kind of attitude that is expressed we break it into three sub-classifications. The first that expresses a negative or positive emotion or feeling is the affect, then there is judgment that show the assessment of character and behaviour, and finally appreciation that entirely denotes the quality of something, somebody, event and situation (Crystal 1995, p.67). Terms of expression that are associated with affect include happiness, security, satisfaction, inclination, and their antonyms among others. Judgment entails social esteem and social sanction. Expressions of social esteem include but not limited to normality, tenacity, and capacity and social sanction covers veracity and propriety among others. On the other hand, appreciation is concerned with reaction, complexity, and valuation. He refers to the earthquake as terror and one that is violent. Reporting on the events attitudinal expressions of appreciation, judgment and affect can be generated in the process of evaluating practices that relate to feelings and capacities. The choice of words terror and violent dictates the expressions that show the degree of the earthquake. The description of object here is socially oriented and gives a wider range of the categories of attitude. Genres are purposefully co-opted into various disciplines of research and the methodologies of study of choice. They introduce research articles in the field of humanities as well as providing more personalized expressions especially if they relate to stories. The process of subdividing attitude into categories sometimes comes with tension. This is despite the fact that in most cases inscription of attitude does not lead to any problems. Since attitude can be graded, two senses have been established to grade it with concerns for expressing feelings and values. Quoting from Martin and Rose, the first sense is force that works with reference to degrees of intensity. Joe uses terror for the reasons that he wants the readers to create the image in their mind of how dangerous the earthquake was. Focus is the second sense that pertains to the sharpening or softening of boarders of a precise definition (Martin, J& Rose 2003. P.52). In this case, Joe sharpens the earthquake by terming it violent. It is good to remember here that attitude ranges in a continuum of positive psychological reaction or action to the negative one including their extremes. No wonder the focus on sense comes in to define the categorical boundaries. The scale of force in graduating attitude separates it by either intensifying or quantifying the expressions. Quantities may include mass, volume, number, extent and size. Focus invokes attitude in an experiential phenomena. Its role may appear in the stages of pre-modification. Focus is a resource that fulfils the categorical meaning. This serves to authenticate the definition. 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