Japanese Religious Culture - Coursework Example

The Religion of Japan For many centuries Japan was more or less isolated from the rest of the world, with little foreign input either in trade or ideas. If today however a survey of religious affinity were taken in Japan then the total numbers would far exceed the population numbers. This is because many people there hold to more than one faith or philosophy, some of them having originated far from Japan, a pattern of behaviour which originated in about 1600 and has continued into the modern era.. According to the World Book Japan page 83.9 % were adherents of Shinto, there were 71.4 % Buddhists, 2% were Christians and 7.8 claimed to belong to ‘other’ religions. Shinto, which can be translated as ‘the way of the gods’ had its origins as long ago 500 B.C.E. and was the religion of Japan at the time when Buddhism arrived via the Korean peninsula in the 6th century C.E. in either 538 or 532 according to ‘Chambers Dictionary of Religion and Beliefs’ ( page 256) and Confucianism came on a similar route at about the same time. Christianity was introduced by Spanish Jesuit missionary Francisco de Xavier who arrived in the country in 1549. It was banned for many years, but during the Meiji period was allowed once more. There is of course a matter of debate as to whether Confucianism or even Buddhism can be truly classed as religions as neither have gods, at least in Buddhism’s case not in all branches, and certainly not in the sense of a divine creator of all things. They can perhaps be described be better described as spiritual philosophies, but for the purposes of this essay they are classed alongside religions. The Japanese never developed the idea, so prevalent in South and West Asia as well as the West, that a person had to adhere exclusively to one religion or another. Premodern Japanese were usually both Buddhist and Shintoist at the same time and often enough Confucianists as well.” So said E.O. Reischauer, the Japanese born former American ambassador to Japan in his book ‘The Japanese’ (1977:217) This syncretism has been one of main distinguishing features of religion in Japan. How did it originate? Why and how does this work in practice? Have there been changes in modern times? Why has the situation changed? What is likely to happen to Japanese religion in the future? I am asking these questions because of a long standing interest in religion and because the religions of the Far East are those I know the least about, so this will be an opportunity to explore this topic in depth. At first I tried to write about these three questions in isolation, but soon found them so intertwined that this proved difficult. For instance the syncretism of ancient times had laid the foundations for the syncretism of the 21st Japanese religion, even though the emphasis might be different and influences more varied. Christianity was first introduced into the country in the mid 16th century, but still only 3 % or less of the Japanese have adopted this religion. In nearby China on the other hand the official percentage number is more than twice as high, despite a recent long period of communism, and it is believed there are millions more Chinese Christians belonging to underground churches. Why did this situation in Japan develop? According to Simon Thalmann in an article of April 2008:- The many religious traditions in Japan have coexisted throughout history in large part because of the ability of the Japanese people to assimilate and allow for the interaction of new ideas and belief systems. However the fact that several religions and philosophy were able to co-exist does not mean that the various aspects did not wax and wane in importance over time. During the Tokugawa era Buddhism fell into the background as the people remained Buddhists often in only the most formal way. At the same time Confucianism and the Shinto religion which had developed in a gradual way out of ancient kami beliefs, increased in importance. The kami, although the word is often translated as ‘god’ were guardian spirits which lived in natural phenomenon such as mountains and rivers, and on occasion in people such as the emperors. Shinto was basically a structuring of a number of long held beliefs, nature worship and fertility cults, methods of divination techniques and shamanism of varying types some peculiar to quite small areas and groups, into one united belief system. So here was already an expressed willingness to accept the religious ideas of others and the adaptation and evolution of them to new purposes. Shintoism has no definitive founder and neither written scriptures or laws so none of these aspects were threatened by Buddhism, but stepping back from it as its influence waned produced no major upheavals either. The decline of Buddhism occurred because Japanese intellectuals, who had studied Confucianism in texts from China and Korea, began also to peruse the Japanese classics in which they rediscovered the traditions of ancient Shintoism. During the same period New Religions emerged. The Meiji period which followed (1868 – 1912) of Japan was period between feudal Japan and truly modern day Japan. It was a period of reform when authority was centralized and the country became a modern nation state. It was also the period when the previous government support of Buddhism changed to the official support of Shinto, which became the state religion – something which lasted until the post-Second World War period. 21st century Japanese are not Confucianists in the same way that their Tokugawa era ancestors were, but the ethics of Confucianism continue to have huge influence in all areas of society, more so than any other philosophy or religion. ‘Almost no one considers himself a Confucianist today, but in a sense almost all Japanese are.’ said Japanese born American observer E.O.Reischauer (1977:214) Both India and China have had huge influences on Japanese religion in the past – Buddhism and Confucianism in particular. This affected areas such as architecture and art as well as philosophy, intellectual and political life and religion until the 16th century. Many Japanese followed a vegetarian diet because of the strong influence of Buddhism, according to Jeff Sellen in his article Tokugawa Japan. Buddhist priest even officiated at Shinto shrines so it is unsurprising that people came to accept that one could belong to more than one faith at once. During the Heian period ( 974-1195 C.E.) Buddhism in Japan became more suited to the Japanese with the development of the Shingon and Tendai sects as reported by Simon Thalmann in April 2008. He describes how, previously during the Nara period in the 8th century, state temples were established. These were organized by a bureaucracy which followed Confucian principles but using Buddhism as the expression of this. There followed three centuries of increasing secularization during the Tokugawa era, which lasted from1604 until 1867/8. This was a time when the social hierarchy was all important. Confucian principles which stressed the importance of morality, filial piety and loyalty were encouraged, according to the article ‘Historical content : The Tokugawa Era’. Then in 1868 came the period of Meiji restoration when Shinto was promoted as the official state religion. This fitted in with the increase in feelings of nationalism among the Japanese people, Buddhism was being seen as belonging to a foreign nation, despite the fact that there were a number of distinctly Japanese sects such as Pure Land, Zen, which promote the idea of gradual enlightenment and Nicheren. Also the Buddhist priests were seen to have become very wealthy because of Shinto shrines at a time of economic difficulty for many people During the Meiji period there was an attempt by reformers to “purify” Shinto from outside influence and letting it totally replace Buddhism, but there was sufficient opposition to prevent this and it was finally realized that arrangements needed to include both traditions. So it can be seen that the changes in religious emphasis reflected political and social changes which took place alongside them. The syncretism that occurred was possible because of Japanese tolerance of new ideas, and because the two religions were so different. The only real opposition to Buddhism at that time came from the Mononobe clan. When this group were defeated in battle in 587 C.E. the new religion spread free from obstruction and resistance.. Almost two hundred years later in 752 C.E., under orders from Emperor Shomu, a temple known as Todai-ji was built at Nara. This contains a huge statue of the Sun Buddha which became associated in the Japanese mind with Amaterasu, the Shinto goddess of the sun, and so a system syncretic of belief became established. The after life is very important in Buddhist thought, but Shinto, which grew out of clan beliefs in kami, is not very concerned with thoughts of the afterlife, so there were no different ideas to be overcome. As one clan overcame another they simply incorporated a new kami and so Shintoism developed. There were also aspects of Taoism, another Chinese import, and even earlier Japanese traditions. Places important in Shinto because of the supposed resident kami, also developed significance for Buddhists as described by Ninian Smart ( 1992, page 146) There is also some evidence of the growing influence of Christianity. In Shintoism there are no concepts to compare to Christian beliefs such as an omnipotent and omnipresent God who cares fro his creation, but who is separated from people because of unacknowledged sin. This makes it easier for converts to absorb new ideas, as they are not necessarily replacing old ones. Traders came first, then the Jesuits came, soon followed by Franciscans who converted many people in the western part of Japan in a relatively short period. However it is possible that many conversions were because an overlord insisted on it, and the people would continue to hold other beliefs. The Encyclopaedia of Japan tells of Oda Nobunaga, an important military personage, who had welcomed the missionaries and assisted their work by making many concessions. Then in 1587 his successor became worried about the amount of influence the westerner were gaining. An edict was issued demanding the expulsion of Christian missionaries.10 years later further conversions were forbidden and there were 25 executions because it was believed that the westerners were intolerant towards Japanese ideas and institutions. The encyclopedia entry makes the point that this persecution was carried out for social and political motivations, not religious ones. There was syncretism in other ways. The so called ‘new religions’, ‘Shinko Shuko’ in Japanese, are in some cases well over a hundred years old, such as Soka Gakkai (The Value Creation Society), Rissho Koseikai (The Society for the Establishment of Justice and Community for the Rise [of Buddhism]), and Tenrikyo ( The Religion of Divine Wisdom). Even Christianity made a comeback in the mid 19th century when in 1859 a Catholic priest was appointed as interpreter by a French official. At about the same time members of several Protestant churches arrived in Japan. Officially their task was to serve the foreign nationals residing there, but direct work among the local people soon began. Not long afterwards it was discovered that there were indigenous Christian groups who had kept their faith hidden for over 200 years. Despite this, and the supposed tolerance of the people , the Japanese constitution of 1889, which in article 3 claimed that the emperor was sacred, guaranteed only religious freedom with certain qualifications, that is ‘Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief.’ (Article 28) .This went together with the next article which guaranteed freedom of speech and association.. There is considerable diversity among these new religions with Tenriko for instance being monotheist and stressing the need of the individual for salvation, while others stress the importance of ancestors. They have millions of adherents who manage to combine aspects of Christianity alongside those of Buddhism and Shinto. This can be likened to New Age ideas in western nations where someone may practice yoga, eat Japanese food and perhaps follow Indian meditation methods, while living in a society whose ethics and laws are based upon Christian morality. The new religions, like new age groups, use small local groups, healing and techniques of mutual support, as well as larger national groups. They encourage direct individual contact with the supernatural, whatever that means to them. There are also what can only be described as the ‘New, New Religions’ which originated in the latter part of the 20th century, during the period after Emperor Hirohito had declared that he was not divine and a time of open religious tolerance developed. According to Goring et al (1992 page 257) these owe even more to New Age influences with beliefs in such things as the exorcism of evil spirits , evangelism at least on a local scale , and strong beliefs in mystical powers and the miraculous. The view given is that these new movements will in their turn become a little ‘old hat’ and even newer religions will gradually replace them. As in the past each new religion will have some influence to a greater or lesser degree upon the religious thinking around it. In the 21st century many people are born into Shintoism, follow the ethics of Confucianism, grow up to go through a Christian form of wedding, including a white dress for the bride, and leave this earth with a Buddhist funeral ceremony. The figures quoted at the beginning of this essay for religious adherence take no account of how deeply a person is involved with their religion or even how often they participate in religious rites As in many modern societies religion does not play a large part in life for the majority, although they may visit a shrine on occasions, join in local festivals with a religious background (matsuri) which are often sponsored by a local shrine or temple, the equivalent of the parish church, but can appear to be quite secular and far removed from how the particular festival originate, although traditional names live on. The people of Japan also use religious ceremonies to mark rites of passage such as weddings and funerals. John McQuaid , writing in 2001 claims that modern life has placed such stress upon established religious institutions that these have been rendered hopeless to respond adequately as religions have not kept pace with the rapid changes in society and the expectations of 21st century Japan. The older religions have, he claims, become increasingly less relevant for the majority. As for the newer religious movements, some with extravagant claims, these are often viewed suspiciously and growth has slowed. McQuiad quotes university president Yoshiya Abe:- Japan is becoming more and more secularized, and young people are interested in survival and earthly values. … they need their friends, not support from institutions. I believe the influence of organized religions is likely to continue to decline. One reason for the change in attitudes in the modern era could be because in the past Japanese society linked religion, politics and power together. From the immediate post war period onwards state and religion became separated, a change that in France for instance, since the Revolutionary period, brought about a decline in religious adherence. However take the example of the United States where there is supposedly a hard division between state and religion, yet where it plays an important part in many people’s lives and where non- denominational groups are actually on the increase in numbers according to the American Religious Identification Survey of 2008. Conclusion Japanese religion has been synergistic and varied since ancient times. With modern communications and ease of travel this is a situation that is likely to get ever more complicated, as the Japanese people interact with an ever wider variety of religious and philosophical ideas, including of course both agnosticism and atheism. For instance, according to McQuiad, half of all Japanese homes now posses a Bible, although Christianity is seen as very much a minority faith. Official statistics are confusing with the government claiming that 85% of people are religious, but other polls showing a very different picture. To a western mind this can appear to be both a dualism and a confusion, as it seems from groups such as Ecumenical Buddhists who claim to be a synthesis of many religion eastern religions and who also claim Jesus as a Buddha, but nevertheless Japanese society seems to thrive. When Francisco de Xavier was contemplating a missionary visit to Japan in the 16th century he is said to have asked whether the Japanese were likely to become Christians. He was told that first of all they would ask many questions and see what he knew. (Ecumenical Buddhism, St Francis Xavier of Japan) It seems that for some at least the questioning about religion is still continuing. References American Religious Identification Survey, (2008 ) retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf Goring, R. ( editor) ( 1992) Chambers Dictionary of Religions and Beliefs, Edinburgh, W. & R. Chambers Christianity in Japan, Encyclopaedia of Japan, retrieved 7 September 2010 from http://tomcoyner.com/jpchrist.html Historical content : The Tokugawa Era, Narukami the thunder god, retrieved 7th September from https://sites.google.com/site/utnarukami/kabuki-theatre-3/what-is-kabuki Japan, World Book, retrieved 7th September 2010 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html Japanese Constitution of 1889 retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://history.hanover.edu/texts/1889con.html Japanese History Timeline , Japan’s Religion and Philosophy, Asian Info retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/japan/religion.htm McQuiad, J. ( 2001) A View of Religion in Japan, US-Japan Media Fellows Foundation 200-2001, retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://www.japansociety.org/a_view_of_religion_in_japan Reischaeur, E.O. ( 1977) The Japanese , Cambridge Mass. and London Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Saint Francis Xavier of Japan, Ecumenical Buddhism, retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://ecumenicalbuddhism.blogspot.com/2010/01/saint-francis-xavier-of-japan.html Smart, N., ( 1992) The World’s Religions, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Thalmann, S. April 8th 2008, Japanese Religious History: Religion in Tokugawa and Meiji Japan, retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://www.suite101.com/content/japanese-religious-history-a51197 Sellen ,J.( 1999) Tokugawa Japan, retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://wsu.edu/~dee/TOKJAPAN/SHOGUN.HTM Todai-ji temple retrieved 7th September 2010 from http://www.taleofgenji.org/todaiji.html Further Reading Earhart, H. Byron. 2004, Japanese Religion: Unity and Diversity. 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2004. Earhart, H. Byron. 1997, Religion in the Japanese Experience: Sources and Interpretations. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1997. Thalmann,S., April 15th 2008, Japanese Buddhism The Heian period: Tendai and Shingon. Read More

Christianity was first introduced into the country in the mid 16th century, but still only 3 % or less of the Japanese have adopted this religion. In nearby China on the other hand the official percentage number is more than twice as high, despite a recent long period of communism, and it is believed there are millions more Chinese Christians belonging to underground churches. Why did this situation in Japan develop? According to Simon Thalmann in an article of April 2008:- The many religious traditions in Japan have coexisted throughout history in large part because of the ability of the Japanese people to assimilate and allow for the interaction of new ideas and belief systems.

However the fact that several religions and philosophy were able to co-exist does not mean that the various aspects did not wax and wane in importance over time. During the Tokugawa era Buddhism fell into the background as the people remained Buddhists often in only the most formal way. At the same time Confucianism and the Shinto religion which had developed in a gradual way out of ancient kami beliefs, increased in importance. The kami, although the word is often translated as ‘god’ were guardian spirits which lived in natural phenomenon such as mountains and rivers, and on occasion in people such as the emperors.

Shinto was basically a structuring of a number of long held beliefs, nature worship and fertility cults, methods of divination techniques and shamanism of varying types some peculiar to quite small areas and groups, into one united belief system. So here was already an expressed willingness to accept the religious ideas of others and the adaptation and evolution of them to new purposes. Shintoism has no definitive founder and neither written scriptures or laws so none of these aspects were threatened by Buddhism, but stepping back from it as its influence waned produced no major upheavals either.

The decline of Buddhism occurred because Japanese intellectuals, who had studied Confucianism in texts from China and Korea, began also to peruse the Japanese classics in which they rediscovered the traditions of ancient Shintoism. During the same period New Religions emerged. The Meiji period which followed (1868 – 1912) of Japan was period between feudal Japan and truly modern day Japan. It was a period of reform when authority was centralized and the country became a modern nation state.

It was also the period when the previous government support of Buddhism changed to the official support of Shinto, which became the state religion – something which lasted until the post-Second World War period. 21st century Japanese are not Confucianists in the same way that their Tokugawa era ancestors were, but the ethics of Confucianism continue to have huge influence in all areas of society, more so than any other philosophy or religion. ‘Almost no one considers himself a Confucianist today, but in a sense almost all Japanese are.

’ said Japanese born American observer E.O.Reischauer (1977:214) Both India and China have had huge influences on Japanese religion in the past – Buddhism and Confucianism in particular. This affected areas such as architecture and art as well as philosophy, intellectual and political life and religion until the 16th century. Many Japanese followed a vegetarian diet because of the strong influence of Buddhism, according to Jeff Sellen in his article Tokugawa Japan. Buddhist priest even officiated at Shinto shrines so it is unsurprising that people came to accept that one could belong to more than one faith at once.

During the Heian period ( 974-1195 C.E.) Buddhism in Japan became more suited to the Japanese with the development of the Shingon and Tendai sects as reported by Simon Thalmann in April 2008. He describes how, previously during the Nara period in the 8th century, state temples were established. These were organized by a bureaucracy which followed Confucian principles but using Buddhism as the expression of this.

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