Cognition in Self and Religion - Term Paper Example

Cognition in self and religion Introduction The paper presents an argument in support of the influence of both evolutionary and cultural factors on self and religion empirical domains with more effect on religion. More importantly, the article elaborates on limitations and directions caused by evolution, culture and the effect to cognition in relation to self and religion domains. It is imperative to note that the paper draws evidence from articles on both self and religion empirical domain publications to elaborate their influence on cognition. Inherent self and religion factors have distinct but opposite contributions to personal life. In self, there is a consideration of being concrete and extremely close to an individual in their life. By contrast, religion is more abstract and remote to a person. This essay will show the effects of evolution and culture on cognition of human beings through comprehensive consideration and analysis the aforementioned two famous domains. Effective research based on evolution and culture will reveal how these factors affect the self and identity of an individual. Examples used in this paper emanate from previous studies and further elaborate on the effects of revolution and culture on the two empirical fields. A. Evolution constraint Self and identity Identity refers to personal perception of oneself belonging to a certain area or society embedded in cognition. From evolutionary psychologist point of view, human beings have gone through various changes during evolution in an attempt to survive in the ecological environment (Mallon & Stich, 1999). Part of the survival included individuals forming groups to enhance the probability of survival (Brewer & Yuki, 2007). During this time, the human brain was developing faster than any other primate due to survival pressure. Hence, they had a sense of cognition, motivation and emotions. Recognizably, the formation of groups led to individuals’ survival in the ecological environment. Similarly, human beings became better adapted to operating in groups hence the need for interdependence. Evolution that involves self-awareness evolved sometime later compared to imaginations of early understanding of evolution work (Leary & Buttermore, 2003). This realization comes from studying the fossils that existed during early forms of human beings. The sense of self-identity involves five distinct categories that have evolved over time. The five categories help in identification of oneself in relation to the physical environment and relationships with others as well. Only three of these categories related to a sense of self-identity resembled present Homo ergaster whose fossils existed in Africa. The need during this time involved formation of groups for survival, a fundamental evolution of the cognition part. Essentially, it is imperious to understand that human cognition has changed over time due to demands for self-identity required to form groups. Without environmental pressure, there will be no possibility of evolution. Similarly, human evolution limit determines the level of self and identity. Since the beginning of development of a sense of belonging to human beings groups, there have not been advancements in cognition due to absence of evolution. Concurrently, limitation of evolution level depends on environmental pressures. This limitation shows that the present status of self and identity is because of the evolution level of cognition in human beings. Notably, the sense of self and identity only changes after there is evolution in cognition. Religion There has been an evolution in cognition relating to religion amongst human beings. However, evolution of religion that forms part of human life has two fundamental perspectives. The foremost perspectives relates to the belief that religion led to better adaptability and survival of people. However, contrary perceptions argue that religion may have come as a by-product of other traits due to people living together. Religious representations usually violate natural expectation in the social world. This violation has similarities with narrative in cultures that also exploits the already existing cognition giving reasons why they are preferred in passing information (Norenzayan, Atran, Faulkner & Schaller., 2006). These representations of concepts use cognition in a way that remains debatable to social psychologists. Most psychologists infer that religious representations use the same cognition as other cultures. In the evolution of man, there has always been part of cognition that perceives the religious teaching without consciousness. Religion does not induce evolution but rather exploits the available cognitive processes. The effect of such exploitation leads to counter-intuitive devotion, which is the central component of religious beliefs. In the religious teachings and beliefs, the ordinary world does not provide enough emphasis on superhuman hence the use of conceptual representation such as spirits. There is the initial need for cognitive evolution for the fundamental religion formation and advances (Norenzayan, Atran, Faulkner & Schaller, 2006). Apparently, absence of evolution in cognition prevents the inherent formation of religion. In religious system, the minds of human beings selectively remember only the relevant and easy teachings. In most cases, religion also uses violation and terror to enhance memorability of religious teachings (Barrett, Richert & Driesenga, 2001). Furthermore, not all imaginations of human beings can pass from an individual’s brain to another and imagination levels differ. Cognition plays a significant role in understanding religion in relation to cultures. In religion, human beings believe superhuman can solve their problems such as deception and deaths making it become an interesting part to memorize. Cognitive part of the brain unconsciously figures what is easy to store and leaves the rest. In doing so, only the easy part to remember in information pass to the next generation. Ability of human brains to remember any religious content depends on different factors. In the cognition of the human system, surrounding the environment makes an influence on easiness of remembering something. In addition, due to the impact of cooperation on an evolution process, humans tend to remember encounters with others. The information stored in the mind bases unconsciously on these facts together with the intention of the message (Boyer, 2000). B. Evolution directed Self and identity The need to survive in a changing environment prompted human beings to adapt through forming of groups. Formation of groups was useful in hunting, gathering and prevention of predation from other animals. Formation of these functional groups was because of higher intellectual ability humans had shown during the early period. In the survival theme, those who formed groups had better chances of survival and became adapted to group in exploiting their environment. Consequently, human beings became interdependent on one another within the society mainly for survival. Adaptation through formation of this self-construal was due to environmental pressure and the need for survival. Environmental pressure such as hunger through a single person hunting or gathering was ineffective and needed a better strategy. Hunting as a group offered better chances of getting food and surviving in the harsh environment. Similarly, need to defend an individual from other predators and have a sense of belonging led to group formation. The groups remained more organized and started rearranging besides beginning to herd and farm. All these practices offered better chances of survival than staying alone. During this time, a sense of cognition developed among group members that led to individualism and collectivism. In the individualism, individuals tend to have idiocentric traits that focus on personal gain rather than a group (Kitayama, Duffy, & Uchida, 2007). These individuals’ characteristics included sense of independence and self-governing. The features are common to western cultures especially in America and Western Europe. In these cultures, a person continuously evaluates self in relation to differences between other people. Similarly, these individual may have a sense of belonging to a particular group just to gain collective self-esteem that in turn boosts personal self-esteem. There is continuous assessment of individual contribution to the group in the struggle to be the best in the individualistic cultures. Groups in return offer sense of security to individuals in this kind of culture. Formation of these groups is due to the similarity in goals. While considering collectivistic culture, individuals prioritize need of others to theirs. In collectivistic cultures, individuals will strategies and act to benefit everybody. In collectivism, individuals form groups without asking if members have the same goal. Both systems of individualism help in survival against the environmental pressure such as discrimination and having a sense of belonging. Religion Cognition in humans selectively chooses the content of sensitivity depending on their daily lives. In religious beliefs, human beings tend to be sensitive to counter-intuitive context that involves the superhuman (Franks, 2004). Afterward, individuals develop strong emotions towards these beliefs and religion, which pushes them to action in their behaviors. There is unconsciously selective choosing of the religious contents to remember while discarding the rest of the teachings. In typical systems, the religion content has a perceived strong relationship with emotions that lead to actions according to the beliefs. In passing religious information, there is unconscious choosing of the parts to remember and discard causing continuous alteration of teachings. Furthermore, information passed forms different magnitude of imagination to the receiver. Only information passed and selected from a number of people create the sensitive context. An example is the presence of superhuman that brings sensitive counter-intuitiveness meaning to any person. This information of superhuman is present in all cultures with the ability of superhuman to access social environment. In all cultures including the traditional ones, presence of these superhuman has an association with counter-intuitiveness. Imagination of the superhuman also has an association with the physical characteristic of normal human being. Abilities of these superhuman in solving human problems are universal to all cultures. Emotional quality comes in connection with beliefs in the abilities of superhuman. The described counter-intuitiveness together with non-described portions contributes to the emotional quality of religion. The emotional quality of religion may constitute faithfulness and loyalty to the religion with belief in better gain. The emotions come with absolute believing in the religion and presence of superhuman. These emotions finally lead to actions according to the religious teachings. Actions come last after an individual has learned about the religion and believed in their teachings. Manifestations of these actions are in behavior and practicing of the religion’s ways of life (Barrett & Lawson, 2001). An individual at this stage may receive full initiation to the religion and participate in the religious rituals or practices. In the action phase, individuals have learned all information needed in the religion. All these actions are due to the sensitive contents passed from one person to another through various ways. C. Cultural constraints Self and identity Cultures in the Western Europe and America have characterization of individualism in which an individual considers their needs first before considering others. On the other hand, culture in East Asia like Japan favors relational collectivism in which activities tend to think those around rather than self-benefiting. These perceptions in the group or individual level may prevent expression of the characteristic not present in that particular culture. Human thinking directions depend on the surrounding culture and physical environment. In the individualistic culture and thought, people always consider evaluation based on the personal achievements and differences from others. There is also grading depending on the contribution of any formed groups. These contributions to the lead to increased self-esteem and elevated social level. Individuals in this culture will be fighting to become independent and think in the same direction. There are differences between American and Japanese employees shows evaluation levels based on their cultures. American employees look at themselves in mirrors and consider personal beauty in relation to others. The difference shows preference personal interests to the collective interest. In case people from individualistic society form groups, it will be for each personal gain and protection in identity rather than mutual gain (Markus, & Kitayama, 1991). People from an individualistic culture do not form groups to have a collective gain like those from a collectivistic culture. Consideration in cognitive thinking of the individual interdependence in these cultures may remain suppressed and unexplored. This kind of culture is common in Western Europe and America where individualism prevails (Gilbert, & Lindzey, 2002). On the other side, individuals from East Asia where relational collectivism such as in Japan tends to think of others rather than personal gains. In these cultures, the primary aim is to maintain harmony among the group members in the society through doing well to others. In individualistic culture, actions have a tendency in making others feel good. Parents in Japan will tell the children to eat rice so that the farmer will not feel bad in urging them to eat. Encouragement to eat is opposite to what parents in America would tell their children while urging them to eat. In collectivistic cultures, where there is consideration of others in mind might deter the ability to think of personal gain present in an individualistic culture. Such kind of thoughts also affects the judgment on others. Religion In religion, human seem to cling to values that define the surrounding cultures with less possibility to welcome any alteration. The counter-intuitiveness status of the superhuman in both cultures and religions appears to cause no problem. The counter-intuition shows that the basis of religion merely depends on the conception of a superhuman rather than how they act. The conception of counter-intuitiveness affects the deep emotions and actions associated with any particular religion. Moreover, both religion and culture seem to share the same cognition in retaining the easy, memorable information from cultural narratives and religious teachings. In the study carried out by Boyer in five countries in five different experiments, he shows the dependence on counter-intuition with relation to culture specificity (Boyer & Ramble, 2001). In the study, there is transfer or breach in the counterintuition to see the effect on recall in different categories. In situations where there is breach or transfer alone, individuals had no problems in the change across different cultures. Lack of problem was due universal beliefs in superhuman and culture allowed the breach or transfer so long as there was the presence of the supernatural being. The idea that superhuman will still take care of human in solving their problems is universal. In case there is the presence of both breach and transfer at the same time, most people will not accept the recall. The presence of breach and transfer together in any natural culture or religion is close to none if not absent. Individuals from differing culture with believe in either transfer or breach got this as an overload in religion cognition. The sense of counter-intuitiveness on the superhuman shifted too much that none of those people can accept. The beliefs in superhuman and its nature in all culture have some similarity, which shows universal cognition of supernatural beings. In any case, if a religion opposes the existing culture, it will face rejection from people using these cultures and norms. D. Culture directed Self and identity Self-cognition cultures have the capacity to influence selection of individuals who will be able to survive. The cultures can be either individualistic or collectivistic in a society (Neisser & Jopling, 1997). Other forms of sub-cultures have also risen that include relational collectivist and relational individualism cultures. Characteristics and reasoning of people from these cultures differs and the need to adjust depends on the culture where a person lives. These cultures either favor survival on an individual level or at the dependence levels. Individualistic cultures have a characterization of people think of personal success rather than group success (Triandis, 1995). Every action of the individual will aim at improving self-evaluation. In the process, any person who shows depersonalization will have another individual taking advantage of them. In turn, nobody will notice their actions in caring for others and no one will do well to them in return. In the individualistic culture, everybody thinks mainly on self-gain. Those with collectivistic trait will not be able to survive in an individualistic culture due to lack of proper support. In case they to form groups with other individuals in an individualistic culture, they will remain exploited as they have no cognitive sense of independent self-construal. As a result, only individuals with great skills in an individualistic culture will survive. Collectivistic cultures greatly depend on members’ depersonalization (Triandis, 1989). The collectivist culture favors mainly those who have an orientation in taking care of others and receive the same treatment. Anybody with individualistic characteristic will tend to exploit this culture and in turn cause disharmony. At the same time, an individualistic person will face discrimination from the in-group members. As a result, individualistic person may convert to become a collectivist in order to maintain the needed harmony. Religion In the cultural and religious beliefs, existence of superhuman that can do extraordinary things is universal. The only difference is in the added information about the superhuman and their ability. An example is ghost as used in the work of (Boyer & Ramble, 2001) that shows that these superhuman beings remain present in all cultural setting and religion. The ghosts in the cultural and religion backgrounds have the same abilities and traits. Furthermore, interactions among humans require understanding of other individuals’ beliefs, desire and intentions that is common in all cultures (Barrett, Richert & Driesenga, 2001). An example of traditional culture and spirit is the impersonation of gan spirits by the Apache masked dancers (Severi, 2004). In this culture, everything in the scene forms a representation of something else like cross for the four cardinal earth corners. There is a close relation between shamanism culture and Christianity where the four corners of the holy ground are similar to four corners in a church building. Traditional shamanism had the same chances as missionary Christianity to expand. However, the Messianic message in Christian religion prevailed not because of the new invention in religious representation but the pragmatic content of the message. In this way, the shamanism traditional cultural practices facilitated the spread of Christianity in the region. Performance of rituals is common in traditional culture like the one of Orokaiva rituals. These performances of rituals involve actions to appease the superhuman (Whitehouse, 1996). Such practices are similar to offerings in the religious teaching. In the rituals, there is use of fear and terror that is also common in the religious teachings. For individuals to accept any religion, it must have the component of superhuman that can solve their problem like in the traditional culture. Practices and beliefs in cultures and religions have part of the similarity in relating to superhuman. The presence of a similar cognition in culture and religion with the same essential elements assist in the transition from culture to religion (Upal, 2011). Conclusion Comparison of the two empirical domains is difficult due to their difference in level of closeness to an individual. However, Empirical domain religion seems to be more constrained and directed by evolution than self and identity. More effect on religion is because it comes as a by-product of cognition evolution to other traits. Hence, in the absence of evolution to favor the characters, religion cannot develop further. It does not influence evolution on its own like self and identity, which manipulate evolution for survival. Culture also has an influence on both empirical domains, but constraints and direction of religion are higher than in self and identity. Higher constraint in religion is significant in the universality and similarity of some content such as superhuman across all cultures and religions. References Barrett, J. L., & Lawson, E. T. (2001). Ritual Intuitions: Cognitive contributions to judgments of ritual efficacy. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 1(2),183-201. BF309. Barrett, J. L., Richert, R.A., & Driesenga, A. (2001). God’s beliefs versus Mom’s: The development of natural and non- natural agent concepts. Child Development, 72(1), 50-65. HQ750.A1 Boyer, P. and Ramble, C. (2001). 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