Various Protestant Reform Movements in the 16th Century - Report Example

An Overview of the Various Protestant Reform Movements in the 16th Century By Lutheranism Lutheranism had its beginning in the 16th century when Europe witnessed the development of a middle class society because of technological advancements. The founder of Lutheranism, Martin Luther, had his birth in one of these middle class families in Germany. After education, Martin Luther taught Bible at the University of Wittenberg.1 It was at that time that the Christian Church started selling indulgences to raise money for the reconstruction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Finding this step highly irrational, Luther wrote “Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences”. The Church was reportedly promoting the doctrine that by donation, souls can be saved from purgatory. Disputing this claim, Luther insisted that only God grants forgiveness and the Church should refrain from promising salvation on payment. 31 October is celebrated as the Reformation Day because on this day, Luther exhibited a copy of his letter on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.2 The claims of Lutheranism spread throughout Europe in a matter of a few months. Soon, the Church responded, demanding an explanation from Luther. Fearing a threat to Papacy, the Pope warned Luther of excommunication if he failed to remove the controversial areas from his work. In order to discipline Luther, the Diet of Worms-a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire- summoned Luther. Despite warnings, Luther stood firm on his belief and the Edict of Worms on May 25 declared him an outlaw. However, Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, saved Luther and made him live incognito in the Wartburg Castle of Eisenach. Lutheranism spread throughout Europe and became a political matter as there were rulers both for and against Lutheranism. Soon, the First Diet of Speyer decided that the Edict of Worms would not be imposed until a solution is reached. In addition, each ruler was given the right to decide whether their territory would support Luther’s teachings. Thus, the states which supported Lutheran principles became “Protestants”. In order to curtail the growing Protestant Movement, Charles V convened the Diet of Augsburg in 1530. The rulers who supported the Lutheran teachings allied, giving birth to the Schmalkaldic League in the year 1531. Soon after the death of Luther in 1546, war erupted and the Holy Roman Imperial forces managed to conquer many Schmalkaldic territories and exile their leaders. However, the Peace of Passau of 1552 and the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 brought religious freedom for the Lutherans. 3 Admittedly, Luther attacked many of the basic principles of the Roman Catholic Church. Lutherans claim individual access to God without the mediation of a priest. In other words, an individual has the right to approach God and is responsible only to God.4 Based on Romans 3:24-25, it is claimed that Jesus Christ died for our sins and raised for our justification. Thus, the justification of humans comes irrespective of their merits and works. In addition, it is pointed out that He is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world.5 Based on these, Lutheranism claims that ones salvation comes through faith; not through works and sacraments. In addition, salvation is available to all through the redeeming work of Christ. Moreover, Lutherans claim that it is not necessary to follow a specific set of rules of order in worship. Similarly, regarding sacraments, the Lutheran claim is that they are only acting as aids to faith. 6 Anabaptism Anabaptism is another protestant tradition took birth in the 16th century unrest. Anabaptism is marked for its radical nature, opposition to infant baptism, separation of church and state, and simplicity of life. The founders of this movement are not properly identified as the movement had a disparate origin. Still, the important people identified by many scholars are Felix Mantz, Conrad Grebel, Hans Hut, Hans Denck, and Melchior Hoffman. The Anabaptists stand apart mainly in their claim that adult baptism is necessary. It is claimed that true baptism should include a public confession of sin and declaration of faith, which is only possible in adult baptism. The Anabaptist tradition came under attack from various spheres including Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church, and by the end of the 16th century, many leaders were executed. However, in northern Germany and Netherlands, the Anabaptists managed to withstand the pressure under the leadership of Menno Simons. Thus, at present, Mennonites are the only existing Anabaptists. 7 The Anabaptists believe that every believer has the capability to interpret the Scriptures independently and they reject the authority of church councils and creeds, thus rejecting the role of education and scholarship. 8 Instead, Anabaptists claim that it is the congregation where the Scripture should be interpreted, and it should be the Spirit which guides the individuals. Moreover, there is christocentrism and adult baptism. Anabaptists claim that all Scripture spoke about Jesus and Scriptures are meant to aid the interpreters in understanding Jesus’ intentions and actions. 9 Regarding baptism, Anabaptists believe that baptism is reserved for the people who repent on their sins and confess their faith; not for infants. 10 Calvinism John Calvin was another 16th century theologian who gave birth to the Christian theology called Calvinism. During the Protestant unrest in France in 1530, Calvin fled France and reached Switzerland. On reaching there, Calvin was invited by William Farel to reform the Geneva church. Thus, he continued his reform movements, writing and preaching sermons. 11 The basic tenets of Calvinism are combined to form the acronym “TULIP”. Firstly, the concept of total depravity points out that due to Adam’s sin and the consequent fall from Paradise, all humans are dead in sins. It is not possible for humans to save themselves. In order to substantiate this claim, Calvinists often cite Jeremiah 17:9 and Romans 3:10-18. The second important principle is unconditional election. According to this view, some people are elected by God to salvation irrespective of man’s response. This claim is substantiated using Romans 8:29. The next idea of limited atonement points out that only those people who are elected will be saved through Christ. Evidently, Calvinists use Matthew 1:21 and John 10:11 for this claim. The next important view is irresistible grace, which stipulates that God draws the people He wants to Him and that God makes them come to Him. It is possible to support this view using John 6:37. Finally, there is perseverance of the saints. According to this principle, all the saints will be eternally secure.12 Thus, it becomes evident that Calvinism is controversial for the fact that according to Calvinism, even sins come under the plans of God and prayer plays no role in ones salvation, as everything is predestined.13 The English Reformation The beginning of the English Reformation can be found in the personal and political interests of King Henry VIII of England. The king was a man who defended the Church from the attacks of Martin Luther by writing the book “The Defence of the Seven Sacraments”.14 In fact, the king had married Catherine of Aragon, the widow of his brother. However, she failed to give him a male child to take over the throne. Therefore, the king wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. However, the Pope refused to do so as he feared the wrath of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Catherine’s nephew. Getting infuriated, the king started charging the clergy with praemunire. The king utilized the help of Thomas Cromwell who was a Protestant. In order to pardon them, the king made the clergy agree to the articles that they recognize the king as the sole protector and Supreme Head of the Church and clergy of England and that the king has spiritual jurisdiction.15 Soon, there was Submission of the Clergy, Act in Restraint of Appeals, Act in Absolute Restraint of Annates, Acts of Supremacy, Act Concerning Peter’s Penance and Dispensations, Treasons Act, and Act against the Pope’s Authority. In fact, the Church possessed one-fifth to three-fifth of the total landed property in England.16 Now, the king started expropriating the properties of monasteries. However, this attempt faced opposition from local mobs. However, the abolition of papal authority had very serious consequences. There was widespread unrest and violence. Though Cromwell wanted to keep the troubles hidden from the King in order to proceed with his Protestant motives, the king became aware about the issues soon. Immediately, he reaffirmed Catholic practices like transubstantiation, clerical celibacy and confession. On 28 June 1540, he executed his long term advisor Cromwell.17 On Henry’s death, Edward VI inherited the throne. The new king was brought up in Protestant ideologies, and hence, continued with practices like removing images, vestments, chalices, processions, ashes, and palms. In addition, celibacy of clergy was removed. Soon, a radical prayer book was prepared for the clergy to follow and rebellions were suppressed forcefully.18 On the death of Edward VI, King Henry’s Roman Catholic daughter Mary I became the ruler. She started reconciliation measures with the Roman Catholic Church. Soon, Protestants were arrested and tortured on various grounds. However, Mary died without an heir in 1558. Thus, Elizabeth inherited the throne. She was against Catholic Church as she was not considered legitimate by the Church. Priests had two choices; either be loyal to the country or be loyal to the church and run for their lives. In order to reach a solution, the parliament was summoned and two new bills were passed; the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity. The new bills better accommodated the demands of the Catholics than before. Firstly, the transubstantial beliefs were restored and a less harsh attitude was adopted towards images, crufixes and candlesticks. However, as time passed, the Church of England became more Protestant in nature through effective elimination of Catholic bishops and charging of common Catholics for treason.19 Admittedly, the English Protest Reform movement was not a single event but the result of the Protestant upheaval in the Europe in 16th Century and the effort by the rulers to further their interests. Bibliography Kittleson, James. Luther the Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986. Bainton, Roland. Here I stand: A Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995. Bouman, Herbert J. “The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions,” Concordia Theological Monthly 11(November 26, 1955): 801. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. Dyck, Cornelius J. An Introduction to Mennonite History. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1967. Friedmann, Robert. The Theology of Anabaptism. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1998. Snyder, Arnold C. Anabaptist History and Theology. London: Pandora Press, 1995. Klaassen, Walter. Anabaptism: Neither Catholic Nor Protestant. Waterloo, ON: Conrad Press, 1973. Bouwsma, William J. John Calvin: A Sixteenth Century Portrait. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Gamble, Richard C. The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Muller, Richard A. The Unaccommodated Calvin: Studies in the Foundation of a Theological Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Lacey, Robert. The Life and Times of Henry VIII. New York: Book Club Associates, 1972. Read More