Implications of the Economics of Religion - Research Paper Example

Introduction Globalization and industrialization has affected not only people’s lifestyle and living standards, but the world view as well. Religion is interpreted differently in different societies; it is interpreted differently in an industrialized global economy and differently in local economies. At the same time religions has influenced the economic welfare of the state. Religion influences moral beliefs about social morality. However, economic disciplines have not completely ignored the importance of religion in shaping economic attitudes and affecting economic outcomes (Ruhr & Daniels, 2003). In fact religion and economy have together formed the world history. Views of globalization are also affected by moral beliefs. Values and beliefs of certain religious denominations may impact the economic life of their members and different denominations may offer different approaches to living these values. Therefore an individual’s religious affiliations shapes his world view and attitude towards life. Features of ancient religions Different theorists, scholars and intellectuals have expressed diverse views on the features common to all ancient religions. Every religion at its core aims to maintain peace. Towards achieving this target various measures have to be adopted. For instance religion has been linked to the economic welfare of the state; it has also been linked to the imprisoning of the mind with fear and guilt. Some thinkers believe that religion has to do with the worship of superhuman beings. However, most religions have these commonalities and this paper evaluates these features based on the history and progression of Buddhism. However, before doing so, these common features of ancient religions are being discussed briefly. Religion and economic development Weber’s main thesis was that religion maybe a positive or negative force on economic development. If religion looked favorably on accumulation of material wealth the result would be positive. Labor should be seen as a moral duty and hence religious meaning was applied to economic behavior (Mangeloja, 2003). The logic behind this principle is that cultural trait affects values and beliefs and these beliefs in turn influence the economic decision-making and hence economic outcomes. Religion can also increase economic development if people can be encouraged to have a positive attitude towards honesty. Religion increases the level of trust and decreases the levels of crime and corruption. Religion enables interaction with strangers with openness which implies foreign direct investment could be enhanced. On the negative side, religion can lead to utility of resources towards building religious monuments or engaging in religious activities. Even Jewish and Christian religious traditions contain a fundamental concern with economy (Vanderbilt, 2004). Economy was at the centre of these theological traditions till the 19th century. The knowledge of God is given in the accounting of an economy and relationship with God is formed based on the performance of the economy. Worship of superhuman beings One group of scholars believes that religion has to do with the worship of super human beings. However, Durkheim and scholars after him concluded that worship and reverence of superhuman beings is not universal among religions (Herbrechtsmeier, 1993). Those against Durkheim’s position argue that reverence for superhuman beings among religions of the world is universal. Reverence for superhuman beings is basic even to Buddhism. However, Durkheim emphasizes that gods or spirits are not essential to religion. Buddhism according to Durkheim has not meaningful gods or spirits but Orrù and Wang (1992) find that Buddhism does admit the existence of supra-mundane beings as the primary component of its religion. The worship of superhuman beings is present in most religions of the world – Christianity (Jesus), Islam (Mohamed). Imprisoning the mind According to Icke (1999) all the major religions of the world including Hinduism Christianity, Islam and Judaism emerged in the middle or near East. All of these religions were designed to imprison the mind and engulf the emotions with fear and guilt. All these religions are based on some savior-God like Jesus or Mohamed. They all emphasized that these superhuman beings have to be worshipped and by following their dictates we can find ‘God’. Even the Babylonian priests believed in this control-by-religion. However, the basis of all ancient religions can be traced back to the Sun when Sun was worshipped as the God. The Phoenicians and the Babylonians understood the true power of Sun as the generator of electromagnetic energy which affects human life every second of the day (Icke, 1999). This is the based on the assumption that Sun is the solar system, when it changes, we change. Based on the Sun cycle and the changing nature of its energy, the human beings react differently at different times. However, worship of Sun was symbolic but not all understood the symbolism. Religious affiliation Human beings are social beings and all social beings are naturally linked with certain groups, beliefs, objects or ideologies (Ercan, 2006). This affiliation may occur consciously or even semi-consciously. It occurs semi-consciously when it is the result of the socialization or the learning process that are beyond the control of the human beings. The world revolves round religious norms and whatever the religions says is accepted unquestioningly. Growth and progression of Buddhism Buddhism is marked by contradictory literature on its history and development. It is believed that Gautama left home at the age of 29 and after six years of severe austerities, he attained enlightenment. The lecture titled ‘Discourse on the Turning of the Wheel of the Law’ that he gave in Deer park in Varanasi, India immediately after he attained bodha (enlightenment) forms the essence of the Buddhist Doctrine (Barnes, 1995). The Buddha’s teachings are summarized in the Four Noble Truths which forms the basis of the first sermon. The Eightfold Path suggested by him guides humans how to live in this world (Patheos, 2008). Till he attained nirvana he continued teaching his dharma. He even identified four locations - Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Varanasi and Kusinara – that should be worshipped after his death. Buddhism has its origins in India. As a religion it grew out of the teachings of a historical individual, Siddhartha Gautama, born in the Sakya clan, who lived in the 6th century BC in north-eastern India (Barnes, 1995). Buddhist dharma is based upon the traditions of Brahmanism, a metaphysical system which has dominated the Indian thought, before and after the brief flourishing of Buddhism. Buddhism claims that to achieve enlightenment the individual must detach from the family and society. Thus renunciation of secular life was encouraged among the followers of Buddha. The monks had to lead an austere life and they depended on donations of food and begging. The hermit monks met during the monsoon months to confirm the teachings of the community. Any ancient religion was meant to improve the karmas as it was strongly believed that religion and through religion, spirituality, could help relieve an individual from the cycle of births and deaths (Herbrechtsmeier, 1993). Similarly, Buddhism too attracted the attention of powerful rulers who wished to improve their social status (karma) by performing noble deeds. King Asoka was the first ruler who gave up violence and adapted to rule through the non-violent teachings of Buddhism (Barnes, 1995). Buddhism does not propagate war and violence as it considers violence counter-productive (Yao, 2006). Contemporary religious and philosophical systems were suppressing the capitalist spirit and ethos in the East (Daniels, 1998). States soon started recognizing that there was a deep and profound relationship between religion and the economic system, and interdependence between socio-cultural and institutional conditions. Religion reflects the ingrained social values and beliefs that shape human aspirations, status definition, institutional forms, and individual and community lifestyles. All these factors influence level of resource, the consumption demand, the income-savings-investment demand relation, and the production processes and techniques. Religion is intrinsic to the nature and dynamics of economic conditions. That socio-cultural context gives rise to economic behavior is evident from Islam’s natural order for human life and Buddhism’s right livelihood. According to the Weberian view all the Asian religions restrain Western-style capitalist development. Apart from the religious factors, there were non-religious factors that contributed to the growth of Buddhism in India. Driven by the political and economic needs of the bureaucratic empires and the economic and status needs of the merchant class, this minor religious sect developed into a universal religion (Darian, 1977). An ascendant economic class was responsible for the growth and success of the new religion. The Hindu Dharma Sutras caution the householder who has completed religious studies against spending too much time in the cities. Trade and industry were not favoured and Hinduism focused on an agricultural society. However, new economic realities conflicted with such theories. This is where Buddhism gained ground as urban revolution led to the expansion of empires. The rulers needed large revenues to support their empires, the public works and the administrative expenses. Along with this, the rulers also did not want that wealth should be accumulated in the hands of potentially rival groups. Thus, a policy was considered essential that could free various social and economic resources from control of traditional status groups, particularly the Brahman and the Kshatriya upper classes. These two groups owned greater portions of the land and managed to avoid payment of taxes. This deprived the state of considerable income. This also threatened the development of market-type economy. Caste system also made it difficult for rulers to control the needed resources. Under the circumstances the rulers could find in Buddhism a solvent to the caste system and a solution to reduce the political and social power of the traditional groups. Buddhism thus attained heights under the ruler Asoka; emperor Asoka’s adoption of Buddhism was a brilliant political strategy. Buddhism as against Hinduism was better able to create affiliations that transcended village, family and caste relationships. Buddhism thus enabled the rulers of early Indian empires to realize their social, economic and political aims. It was more conducive than Hinduism for the rising merchant class as well; it was also more conducive to entrepreneurial activity. The primary aim of the Buddhists is to improve the human condition by overcoming suffering. This is also the motive that underlies the economic modernization but Buddhism sees worldly and material attachment as the cause of adverse human conditions and not a cure for sufferings (Daniels, 1998). Buddhism encourages material progress but denounces attachment to them. Thus Buddhism traits such as frugality, self-restraint, and resourcefulness in the Buddhist livelihood may encourage savings and investment decisions. Buddhist beliefs, practices and social institutions do not constrain economic growth but it only encourages sustainable development. In the past the Buddhist socio-cultural context has been a barrier to economic growth in nations where Theravada (traditional form of Buddhism) dominated. The nations with strong Mahayana influence experienced economic welfare gains. Most religious philosophies in the world become fragmented over time and different groups of people start interpreting the core philosophy in their own way. Buddhism too faced the same outcome. Fragmentation among the monks started soon after Buddha attained nirvana. This particularly occurred because no written records of Buddha’s teachings are available; monks merely retained fixed passages from the words spoken by Buddha. No succession was named and Buddha categorically emphasized that all people are equal (Buddha, 101, n.d.). Over the course of its 2500 years of history Buddhism too experienced many schisms and modifications – currently there are three major branches of the tradition – the Theravada (doctrine of the elders), the Mahayana (the great vehicle) and the Vajrayana (the diamond vehicle also known as Tibetan Buddhism) (Patheos, 2008). Within each of these branches also many sects and groups have developed. Buddhism, from its roots in India spread to every corner of the world and in each place it adopted and adapted local practices and beliefs. Mahayana represents reformation in which the decayed parts of the old tradition are rejected in favor of new positive innovations (Silk, 2002). The proponents claim that the new innovations are in line with Sakyamuni’s Buddhism. Buddha had told his closest disciple Ananda that small changes could be introduced in minor rules. However, fragmentation and sects occurred because Ananda did not clarify from the Master which minor rules could be modified. The First Council that met after the Mahaparinirvana then decided not to change any disciplinary rule laid down by Buddha and no new rule was introduced (ViewonBudddhism, n.d.). Changes started occurring after one hundred years of Buddha attaining parinirvana. This marked the first split in the sangha. The Third Council was held during the rule of Emperor Asoka in 3rd century BCE. This was held to discuss the differences among the different sects of bhikkhus. Differences of opinions concerned the Dharma. The teachings accepted and approved by this Council came to be known as the Theravada – or teachings of the elders. King Asoka then sent missionaries to different regions for spread of this religion. The regions include Sri Lanka, Kanara, Karnataka, Kashmir, the Himalayan region, Burma, and Afghanistan. The teachings that reached Sri Lanka were known as Pali-canon. The Fourth Council was held at Jalandhar under the auspices of King Kaniska. This was attended by 499 monks who compiled a new canon altogether which was not recognized by Theravada. The Fifth Buddhist Council was held in Burma where the Pali-canon was revised and inscribed on marble slabs. History too is responsible to influence the acceptance of religious traditions and practices. Buddhism failed to adapt to the changes in the social and political environments and it lacked a wide base of support (ViewonBuddhism, n.d.). The Turkish Muslims invaded India from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. The invaders sacked the great monastic universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila and killed many prominent monks. This was a death blow to Buddhism from which it never recovered. Magadha, the heartland of Buddhism in India was attacked and conquered and this wiped out Buddhism from India. Modern religious experience Education and modern scientific discoveries eroded the faith in ancient scriptures and religions. Astronomy challenged and shattered Biblical accounts of the origins of the world, of the purpose of human existence. With the rise of modern science in the West interest in Eastern religions grew and one such ‘alternative’ that people turned to, was Buddhism (Verhoeven, 20010. Modern science led to deep spiritual crisis and this led to a split between faith and reason. People turned to Buddhism with the hope that this religion could serve to reunite the estranged worlds of matter and spirit. This led to the growth of Buddhism in the West which was based on the need to have religious beliefs grounded in new scientific truth. Buddhism was gradually translated into a medium and people could find message compatible and resonant with scientific and progressive Spirit of the Age. People wanted religion to ‘make sense’ and to be one with conventional wisdom. The Buddhist scriptures were presented in way that it appealed to the modern sensibilities. This was done because now people wanted reliable knowledge based on natural phenomena backed by empirical sciences. Superstitious and mystical elements from Buddhism were stripped before it was presented to the people. Buddhism was gradually linked to science and it was believed that Buddhism and science were but different rivers leading to the same sea. While in the past religion was merely a survival from man’s primitive past, religion continues to dominate people’s lives even now. However, as science and technology has advanced religious activity started declining. As people globally are becoming educated, their faith in religious beliefs and values has been declining. Earlier people became members of religious groups due to indoctrination leading to aberrant values or abnormal psychology which led to trauma, neurosis or unmet needs (Mangeloja, 2003). Scientists have always expressed disbelief or doubt in the existence of God. Science and religion both work towards the search of the Truth and both have human concerns although it is believed that the goals are different (Ratanakul, 2002). Every religion – Buddhism, Hinduism or any other philosophical path has a method of inquiry to attain the truth, which is also the principle of scientific experiments. The method of inquiry leads to adoption of tolerance as a principal value for the seeker of truth. The purpose of science is to investigate the physical world while the purpose of religion is to investigate the inner world. Scientific discoveries help unlock the mysteries of the physical realities while religion leads to human discovery. Hinduism, like Christianity, Judaism and Islam is a metaphysical system. Science is non-metaphysical and hence accepts no divine or “outside the system” source (Dasa, 2007). Religion and science are interrelated according to the Hindu scriptures. Bhagavad Gita, a very important and noble Hindu scripture, has a chapter titled Sankhya Yoga. The term Sankhya means counting or analysis. While science is the analysis of matter, Vedic science is the analysis of the soul and God (Dasa, 2007). However, as modern science developed people moved away from the reality and the principles of different religions as none could explain the link and interconnection between science and religion. The spiritual philosophies of Asia and particularly Buddhism touch three dimensions of human existence – social (relationship with each other), psychological (with one’s self), and natural (with the physical world) (Verhoeven, 2001). Societies during the days of Buddha were deeply rooted to their place in the natural world. Economies were more localized, human were interdependent on other sentient beings and on creation. Relations between people and between nature and culture were pure and unmediated (Norberg-Hodge, 1997). Ethical decisions were taken based on direct observations and experiences of the natural world. Buddhism teaches about the constantly changing cycles of the natural world, about the waxing and waning of the moon. Buddhism teaches about impermanence and interdependence. The modern societies however, are governed by complex technologies and large-scale social institutions. This has led to separation between people and between humans and the living world. People now depend more on the technosphere than on the biosphere (Norberg-Hodge, 1997). The modern society is fragmented and believes that we are separate from and are able to control the world. Apart from the development of modern science, conversion in religion also enflames human emotions (Frawley, 1999). Missionaries try to persuade an individual to change his religious belief and in the process they denigrate the person’s current religious belief. Missionaries play on the emotions of the person and engulf his mind with guilt. They do not approach the individual with an open mind for discussions and usually some sort of temptations is offered. In the ancient religion practices no temptations were offered but today the social institutions that have formed around religions, want to boast of a huge membership. It amounts to psychological violence as it aims to tame the hearts and minds of the innocent people. Christianity for instance, cannot be remembered without its missionary activity. It has always sought to convert the world. Islam too shares the same agenda with Christianity to convert the world to its particular belief. When Buddhism was practically dead in India conversion took place in Nagpur in Maharashtra, India. The difference in this case was that it was born out of a socio-political situation and the initiative was taken by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. Sections of Scheduled Castes or Dalits suffered centuries of suppression and marginalization and were considered as untouchables. During the 2500th year of Buddha’s Parinirvana, Dr. Ambedkar converted 400,000 untouchables to Buddhists (Singh, 2010). Some even called this as a political stunt to amass support. According to law scheduled castes converts to Buddhism and Sikkhism do not lose their special privileges after conversion but converts to Islam and Christianity do. Discussion and conclusion The growth and development of Buddhism has influenced the political arena, the history of the nation and the economic welfare of the state. Most ancient religions propagate peace and love; most religions have the same features and practices. Religion in ancient times was linked to the economic welfare of the state. Religion could influence the economic development. If it looked upon accumulation of wealth as positive then the influence was considered good. Religion promotes virtues such as honesty and trust which enhance economic wealth; religion condemns violence crime and corruption and these reduce economic wealth. Thus, economic growth has always been linked to religion. Buddhism was one such religion that encouraged economic wealth but discouraged attachment to this material wealth. This is where it scored over Hinduism where the seekers are refrained from investing in trade and industry. Other features common to all ancient religions is the worship of superhuman beings. Political and social environment also promulgated religion or made it extinct. Over time, changes did take place as modern science developed and as people developed independent thinking. For instance, in Buddhism a number of sects and groups developed, where each group defined and refined their principles and practices. To some extent this can also be attributed to lack of written document of the verbal texts. Buddhism thus enabled the rulers of early Indian empires to realize their social, economic and political aims. Buddhism influenced world history and influenced the ancient world culture. Religion and science both aim to seek the truth through the process of inquiry. While the target is the same, science deals with the physical world and religion with the inner world. However, man started demanding proof of the existence of God and gradually turned away from religion towards science. Toady most religions have become fragmented and different groups and sects have been established. In the current era, regions and nations have established large social institutions for the promotion of religion. Religion is used as a means to amass political support; religion is used to tune and tame the minds and hearts of people to suit the vagaries of the chosen few. The minds and emotions of the people are engulfed with feelings of guilt and fear. Often times they are promised the basic necessities in exchange for becoming followers of a particular religion. Religious affiliations are able to draw financial support from the masses in the name of charitable activities. In the ancient times people lived in harmony; today violence prevails. The religious experiences in the past dealt with inner revelations; today discoveries of science rules. People seek scientific basis in every aspect of religion. The experience of yester years cannot be experienced by the people today as religion itself has diluted; it is now a means to achieve an end, material benefits. The influence of liberalization, free trade and globalization is evident in how people perceive and experience religion. Importance is now given to religious affiliations, the size of the religious order and not to individual religious experiences. References Barnes, G.L. (1995). An Introduction to Buddhist Archaeology. World Archaeology, 27 (2), 165-182 Daniels, P.L. (1998). Economic change, the environment and Buddhism in Asia. International Journal of Social Economics, 25 (6), 968 - 1004 Darian, J.C. (1977). Social and Economic Factors in the Rise of Buddhism. Sociological Analysis, 38 (3), 226-238 Dasa, S.N. 92007). Hinduism and Science. Devasthanam. Retrieved from http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Hindu%20Primer/hinduismandscience.html Ercan, M. (2006). RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM AND CONFLICT. International Journal of Human Sciences, 2 (2) Frawley, D. (1999). The Ethics of Religious Conversions. Prajna Journal. April-June 1999, 3 (2), Retrieved from http://media.isnet.org/antar/etc/ConversionEthics.html Herbrechtsmeier, W. (1993). Buddhism and the Definition of Religion: One More Time. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 32 (1), 1-18 Icke, D. (1999). The Biggest Secret. Chapter 4. The Suns of God. Retrieved from http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/biggestsecret/biggestsecretbook/biggestsecret04.htm Manjeloja, E. (2003). Implications of the Economics of Religion to the Empirical Economic Research. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary? doi=10.1.1.198.2689 Norberg-Hodge, H. (1997). Buddhism in the Global Economy. International Society for Ecology & Culture. Retrieved from http://www.localfutures.org/publications/online- articles/buddhism-in-the-global-economy Orrù, M., & Wang, A. (1992). Durkheim, Religion, and Buddhism. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31 (1), 47-61 Patheos. (2008). Religion Library: Buddhism. Retrieved from http://www.patheos.com/Library/Buddhism.html Ratanakul, P. (2002). BUDDHISM AND SCIENCE: ALLIES OR ENEMIES? Zygon. 37 (1), 115-123 Ruhr, M.V., & Daniels, J. (2003). The Relationship Between Religious Affiliation, Region, Race, and Attitudes Toward Globalization. Faith & Economics. Fall 2003. 42, 26-39 Silk, J.A. (2002). What, If Anything, Is Mahāyāna Buddhism? Problems of Definitions and Classifications. Numen, 49 (4), 355-405 Singh, U. (2010). Exile and Return: The Reinvention of Buddhism and Buddhist Sites in Modern India. South Asian Studies, 26 (2), 193-217 Vanderbilt. (2004). Religion and Economy: A study group of the Center for the Study of Religion and Culture. Retrieved from http://www.vanderbilt.edu/csrc/PDFs%20and %20Jpgs/Religion_and_Economy_Proposal_Public.pdf Verhoeven, M.J. (2001). Buddhism and Science: Probing the Boundaries of Faith and Reason. Religion East and West, 1, 77-97 Retrieved from http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/VerhoevenBuddhismScience.htm ViewonBudddhism. (n.d). Brief History of Buddhism in India. Retrieved from http://viewonbuddhism.org/india.html Yao, W. 92006). Buddhist Thought and Several Problems in the World Today. Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 1 (1), 144-147 Read More